THE    VEGETABLE    GARDEN 


A   GOOD   COLLECTION   OF   HOME-GROWN   VEGETABLES 


LETTUCE  MATURING  IN  HOME-MADE  COLDFRAME 


The 

Vegetable  Garden 

WHAT,  WHEN,  AND  HOW  TO  PLANT 


Reprinted  from  "  The  Farmer's  Cyclopedia" 


GARDEN  CITY  NEW  YORK 

DOUBLEDAY,  PAGE  &  COMPANY 

1917 


Copyright,  1912,  by 

AGRICULTURAL  SERVICE  COMPANY 
WASHINGTON,  D.  C. 

All  rights  reserved 


TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 


PAGE 

Its  Importance         3 

Location 5 

Plan  and  Arrangement              5 

Fertilizers       ...                 7 

Preparation  of  the  Soil              9 

Time  of  Planting      .                 10 

Selection  of  Seed       .                 10 

Sowing  and  Planting                 11 

Tools        15 

Mulching 15 

Irrigation 18 

Thinning        19 

Transplanting 19 

Setting  in  the  Open  Ground 20 

Protection  of  Plants       ....            21 

Harvesting,  Packing  and  Shipping            22 

Canning  Vegetables  on  the  Farm  .           .     .      .     .     • 23 

Storing .                      .     .                 .  27 

Early  Plants  in  Hotbeds     ....                      .      .                 .  29 

Handling  Plants .                      .     .                 .  30 

Frames  Used  in  Truck  Growing    .           .                      .                      .  81 

Ventilation .                      .     .           .     .  33 

Soils  and  Fertilizers       ....           34 

Watering  Crops        34 

Garden  Products: 

Anise 35 

Artichoke 35 

Asparagus 35 

Beans         40 

Beans,  Lima 46 

Beets 47 

Borage  ......                            .  48 

Broccoli      .....                            .  48 

Brussels  Sprouts         ...                             .  49 

Cabbage     .....                             .  49 

Calabash .  51 

Cantaloupe      ....                            .  52 

Cardoon      .      .           ...                            .           ...  53 

Carrot        H 54 

Cauliflower 54 

Celeriac 57 

Celery • 57 

Cetewayo 64 

Chayote 64 

Chervil                                                ....                                        .      .  64 

Chicory 64 

Chile           65 

Chive 66 

Citron 66 

Collards 67 

Corn  Salad 67 

Cress 67 

Cucumbers 67 

v 


vi  TABLE  OF  CONTENTS 

PAGE 

Garden  Products — Continued 

Dandelion 71 

Dill 72 

Egg  Plant        72 

Endive 72 

Fennel        73 

Garlic 73 

Ginger        73 

Herbs         73 

Horse  Radish 74 

Ice  Plant 73 

Kale 74 

Kohl-Rabi 74 

Leek 75 

Lettuce 75 

Lleren         75 

Martynia         76 

Melon — Muskmelon        76 

Melon— Watermelon 81 

Mustard 82 

Nasturtium 82 

New  Zealand  Spinach 83 

Okra 83 

Onions        85 

Parsley 95 

Parsnip 95 

Peas 95 

Peppers 96 

Physalis 96 

Potato        ' 97 

Pumpkin 116 

Radish 116 

Rhubarb 116 

Ruta-Baga 117 

Salsify        117 

Scolymus         117 

SMrret        117 

Sorrel 118 

Spinach 118 

Squash 118 

Stachys 118 

Sweet  Basil 119 

Sweet  Corn 119 

Sweet  Marjoram 119 

Sweet  Potato 119 

Swiss  Chard 128 

Thyme 128 

Tomatoes 128 

Turnips 137 

Vegetable  Marrow 137 

Quantity  of  Seed  to  Plant1 138 

Composition  of  Roots 140 

Authorities  Consulted         140 


LIST  OF  ILLUSTRATIONS 

A   Good    Collection   of   Home-Grown   Vegetables.      Lettuce 
Maturing  in  Home-Made  Coldframe Frontispiece 

FACING  PAGE 

Liquid  Manure  is  One  of  the  Best  Acting  Fertilizers  ....  8 

The  Wheel  Hoe  is  the  Handiest  Garden  Tool 16 

The  Easiest  Running  Wheel  Hoe  Valuable  for  Maintaining  a  Dust 

Mulch          16 

Temporary  Hotbeds  in  a  City  Back  Yard 30 

Showing  Vegetables  Growing  in  Hotbed 32 

Celery  Banked  With  Earth  to  Blanch  It 62 

Japanese  Climbing  Cucumbers,  Nearly  Six  Feet  From  the  Ground  68 

Well-Grown  Cucumbers 68 

Thorough  Cultivation  of  the  Growing  Crop  is  an  Essential  of  Suc- 
cessful Potato  Raising       110 


vii 


THE    VEGETABLE    GARDEN 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

PERHAPS  the  most  characteristic  feature  of  Northern  and 
Eastern  farms  is  the  home  vegetable  garden.  Even  where 
no  orchard  has  been  planted,  and  where  the  ornamental  sur- 
roundings of  the  home  have  been  neglected,  a  fairly  well-kept 
garden  in  which  are  grown  a  number  of  the  staple  kinds  of  vege- 
tables is  generally  to  be  found.  In  many  cases  the  principal  interest 
in  the  garden  is  manifested  by  the  women  of  the  household  and 
much  of  the  necessary  care  is  given  by  them.  A  small  portion  of 
the  garden  inclosure  is  generally  devoted  to  the  cultivation  of 
flowers,  and  a  number  of  medicinal  plants  is  invariably  present. 
Throughout  the  newer  parts  of  the  country  it  is  seen  that  the  condi- 
tions governing  the  maintenance  and  use  of  the  vegetable  garden 
are  somewhat  different,  and,  while  a  number  of  vegetable  crops  may 
be  grown  somewhere  on  the  farm,  there  is  wanting  that  distinction 
so  characteristic  of  the  typical  New  England  kitchen  garden. 

It  would  be  impossible  to  make  an  accurate  estimate  of  the  value 
of  crops  grown  in  the  kitchen  gardens  of  the  United  States,  but  from 
careful  observation  the  statement  can  safely  be  made  that  a  well-kept 
garden  will  yield  a  return  ten  to  fifteen  times  greater  than  would  the 
same  area  and  location  if  devoted  to  general  farm  crops.  A  half  acre 
devoted  to  the  various  kinds  of  garden  crops  will  easily  supply  a 
family  with  $100  worth  of  vegetables  during  the  year,  while  the 
average  return  for  farm  crops  is  considerably  less  than  one-tenth  of 
this  amount.  A  bountiful  supply  of  vegetables  close  at  hand  where 
they  may  be  secured  at  a  few  moments'  notice  is  of  even  more  im- 
portance than  the  mere  money  value. 

Fresh  vegetables  from  the  home  garden  are  not  subjected  to  ex- 
posure on  the  markets  or  in  transportation  and  are  not  liable  to 
become  infected  in  any  way.  Many  of  the  products  of  the  garden 
lose  their  characteristic  flavor  when  not  used  within  a  few  hours 
after  gathering.  By  means  of  the  home  garden  the  production  of 
the  vegetable  supply  for  the  family  is  directly  under  control,  and 
in  many  cases  is  the  only  way  whereby  clean,  fresh  produce  may  be 
secured.  The  home  vegetable  garden  is  worthy  of  increased  atten- 
tion, and  a  greater  number  and  variety  of  crops  should  be  included  in 
the  garden.— (F.  B.  255.) 

The  development  and  extension  of  truck  farming  in  the  Atlan- 
tic coast  States  have  been  coincident  with  the  development  of  trans- 
portation facilities  throughout  that  section.  In  the  beginning  the 
points  affording  water  connection  with  the  great  consuming  centers 

3 


4  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

of  the  North  were  those  at  which  truck  farming  first  became  estab- 
lished. The  phenomenal  growth  of  the  great  consuming  centers  of 
the  country  has  stimulated  a  corresponding  growth  and  extension 
of  the  food-producing  territory,  especially  that  capable  of  producing 
perishable  truck  crops.  The  demands  for  vegetables  out  of  season, 
followed  later  by  the  continuous  demand  for  fresh  vegetables 
throughout  the  year  by  the  great  cities,  led  first  to  the  market  gar- 
deners located  near  the  cities  supplementing  their  field  operations 
by  extensive  forcing-house  enterprises.  Naturally,  the  products 
from  the  greenhouses  were  expensive  and  available  only  to  the  few 
who  were  able  to  pay  fancy  prices  for  green  products  out  of  season. 
The  improvement  and  extension  of  the  transportation  facilities 
which  came  with  the  great  railway-building  era  of  the  United  States 
made  it  possible  to  take  advantage  of  the  wide  diversity  of  climate 
offered  along  the  Atlantic  coast  of  the  United  States  to  furnish  these 
perishable  products  to  the  great  cities  of  the  North  and  East. 

Transportation  facilities,  together  with  cheap  labor  and  cheap 
lands  at  the  South,  have  made  it  possible  to  produce  in  extreme 
southern  locations  products  out  of  season  at  the  North  in  competition 
with  greenhouse  products.  The  greater  land  area  and  the  smaller 
amount  of  capital  involved  in  the  production  of  crops  at  the  South, 
even  though  transportation  charges  were  high,  have  enabled  south- 
ern growers  to  produce  much  larger  quantities  of  the  desired  crops 
than  could  be  grown  profitably  under  glass.  It  was  therefore  not 
many  years  before  lettuce,  celery,  tomatoes,  radishes,  beets,  and 
bunch  beans  came  to  be  regular  winter  and  early  spring  products  of 
gardens  located  at  great  distances  from  the  centers  of  consumption. 
— (Y.  B.  1907.) 

It  is  only  necessary  to  look  around  the  village  and  town  gardens 
in  the  South  to  become  convinced  of  the  great  need  that  exists  for 
information  in  regard  to  the  proper  care  of  the  garden,  and  particu- 
larly that  part  which  is  intended  to  give  supplies  to  the  table.  There 
town  gardeners  are  very  active  in  the  early  spring,  and  their  enthu- 
siasm often  leads  them  to  go  ahead  and  plant  a  great  many  things 
at  a  season  too  early  for  their  safety,  so  that  a  return  of  cold  often 
compels  the  almost  entire  replanting  of  the  garden.  But  with  the 
production  of  the  early  crops  in  the  garden,  the  enthusiasm  of  the 
gardeners  oozes  out  under  the  influence  of  the  summer's  heat,  and 
the  garden  that  at  first  looked  so  neat  in  its  spring  dress  becomes 
merely  a  weed  patch.  Few  people  realize  the  advantage  that  long 
summers  and  sunny  autumns  give  for  the  production  of  a  constant 
succession  of  crops  in  the  garden,  and  still  fewer  realize  that  in  this 
climate  the  garden  need  at  no  season  of  the  year  be  abandoned  to 
the  weeds.  One  of  the  greatest  troubles  that  results  from  the  com- 
mon practice  of  allowing  the  garden  to  grow  up  in  weeds  after  the 
first  peas,  corn,  cabbage,  and  tomatoes  are  secured,  is  that  these 
weeds  are  the  places  where  the  larva?  of  the  cut-worm  hide,  and  are 
ready  to  begin  their  destructive  work  as  soon  as  the  garden  plants 
are  set  in  the  spring.  If  the  garden  is  kept  clean  and  cropped  con- 
tinuously all  the  year  round,  as  it  may  and  should  be  here,  there 


FIELD  'AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  5 

will  be  no  cut-worms  to  bother  the  early  plants.  From  January  to 
January  there  is  no  need  in  in  the  South  for  any  space  in  the  garden 
unoccupied  by  crops.  From  the  time  the  earliest  peas  go  into  the 
ground  in  January  up  to  the  time  it  is  necessary  to  prepare  for  them 
the  following  year  there  can  be  a  constant  succession  of  fresh  vege- 
tables from  the  garden,  by  the  exercise  of  a  little  forethought.  And 
this  succession  can  be  made  still  more  perfect  if  there  be  added  a 
frame  with  some  hot-bed  sashes  for  the  production  of  lettuce,  cauli- 
flower, radishes,  carrots,  etc.,  during  the  colder  months;  while  all 
through  the  winter  there  can  be  celery,  kale,  spinach  and  turnips. — * 
(N.  C.  Bui.  132.) 

LOCATION. 

The  question  of  the  proximity  to  the  house  or  other  building 
is  of  great  importance  when  locating  the  garden.  Caring  for  a 
garden  is  usually  done  at  spare  times,  and  for  this  reason  alone  the 
location  should  be  near  the  dwelling.  In  case  the  site  chosen  for  the 
garden  should  become  unsuitable  for  any  cause,  it  is  not  a  difficult 
matter  to  change  the  location.  Many  persons  prefer  to  plant  the 
garden  in  a  different  location  every  five  or  six  years.  The  lay  of  the 
land  has  considerable  influence  upon  the  time  that  the  soil  can  be 
worked,  and  a  gentle  slope  toward  the  south  or  southeast  is  most 
desirable  for  the  production  of  early  crops.  It  is  an  advantage  to 
have  protection  on  the  north  and  northwest  by  either  a  hill,  a  group 
of  trees,  evergreens,  a  hedge,  buildings,  a  tight  board  fence,  or  a 
stone  wall  to  break  the  force  of  the  wind. 

Good  natural  drainage  of  the  garden  area  is  of  prime  impor- 
tance. The  land  should  have  sufficient  fall  to  drain  off  surplus 
water  during  heavy  rains,  but  the  fall  should  not  be  so  great  that 
the  soil  will  be  washed.  The  surface  of  the  garden  should  not  con- 
tain depressions  in  which  water  will  accumulate  or  stand.  Waste 
water  from  surrounding  land  should  not  flow  toward  the  garden, 
and  the  fall  below  should  be  such  that  there  will  be  no  danger  of 
flood  water  backing  up.  The  garden  should  not  be  located  along 
the  banks  of  a  creek  or  stream  that  will  be  liable  to  overflow  during 
the  growing  season. 

A  good  fence  around  the  garden  plot  is  almost  indispensable, 
and  it  should  be  a  safeguard  against  all  farm  animals,  including 
poultry,  and  should  be  close  enough  to  keep  out  rabbits.  A  tight 
board  fence  will  accomplish  this  result  and  also  serve  as  a  wind- 
break.—(F.  B.  255.) 

PLAN   AND   ARRANGEMENT. 

The  garden  should  be  planned  with  a  view  to  furnishing  a 
large  assortment  and  continuous  supply  of  vegetables  through  the 
entire  season.  Its  size  will  depend  primarily  upon  the  amount  of 
land  available.  On  the  farm,  where  any  amount  of  land  the  owner 
desires  can  be  reserved  for  a  garden,  vegetables  to  be  stored  for 
winter  as  well  as  the  summer  supply,  should  be  grown.  On  the 
village  lot,  space  may  be  insufficient  to  grow  more  than  the  sum- 
mer's supply,  and  it  may  also  be  necessary  to  leave  out  certain 
vegetables  that  require  a  large  amount  of  space.  On  a  city  lot* 


6  TEE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

the  space  available  for  growing  vegetables  is  necessarily  small,  and 
plantings  must  usually  be  confined  to  those  vegetables  which  produce 
a  large  amount  of  edible  product  for  the  space  occupied. 

Whether  the  garden  is  on  the  farm,  in  the  village,  or  on  the 
city  lot,  the  principles  governing  its  planting  and  care  are  the  same 
although  the  distances  of  planting,  methods  of  tillage,  and  intensity 
of  cropping  may  differ  widely.  On  the  farm,  the  saving  of  labor  is 
more  important  than  the  saving  of  space ;  even  the  small  vegetables 
are  planted  in  long  rows  rather  than  in  beds;  and  horse  power  is 
substituted  for  hand  power  wherever  possible.  In  the  village  and 
the  city,  the  vegetables  must  usually  be  planted  as  closely  as  the 
nature  of  their  growth  will  permit,  and  hand  tillage  employed 
almost  exclusively. 

Much  loss  of  time  in  planting  a  garden  can  be  avoided  by 
making  a  definite  plan  of  the  garden  several  weeks  or  even  months 
before  the  planting  is  to  begin.  After  measuring  the  area  to  be 
used  for  the  garden,  the  next  step  is  to  decide  what  vegetables  are  to 
be  grown.  If  space  is  ample,  this  will  be  determined  primarily 
by  the  personal  tastes  of  the  gardener  and  his  family.  However, 
if  only  a  limited  amount  of  time  and  attention  ^  can  be  given  the 
garden,  it  may  be  wise  not  to  undertake  the  growing  of  some  of  the 
more  exacting  crops.  Whatever  the  space  to  be  devoted  to  gardening, 
the  crops  to  be  grown  should  be  decided  upon  long  before  the  time  of 
planting. 

In  planning  the  garden,  it  is  well  to  arrange  the  vegetables 
in  the  order  in  which  they  are  to  be  planted.  This  facilitates  the 
preparation  of  the  land  for  planting,  and  makes  it  possible  to 
maintain  the  implanted  portion  in  a  good  friable  condition  with 
the  least  expenditure  of  labor.  In  order  that  the  vegetables  may 
be  so  arranged,  it  is  necessary  to  know  the  proper  time  for  planting 
each  crop.  This  depends  primarily  upon  the  temperature  and 
moisture  requirements  of  the  particular  crop  in  question. 

If  any  of  the  small  fruits,  such  as  raspberries,  currants,  and 
gooseberries,  are  to  be  planted  within  the  garden  enclosure,  they 
should  be  included  with  the  permanent  crops.  The  area  devoted 
to  the  hotbed,  cold  frame,  and  seed  bed  should  be  decided  upon,  but 
these  may  be  shifted  more  or  less  from  year  to  year  or  located  in  some 
convenient  place  outside  of  the  garden.  Where  there  is  any  great 
variation  in  the  composition  of  the  soil  in  different  parts  of  the 
garden  it  will  be  advisable  to  take  this  into  consideration  when 
arranging  for  the  location  of  the  various  crops.  If  a  part  of  the 
land  is  low  and  moist,  such  crops  as  celery,  onions,  and  late  cucum- 
bers should  be  placed  there.  If  part  of  the  soil  is  high,  warm,  and 
dry,  that  is  the  proper  location  for  early  crops  and  those  that  need 
quick,  warm  soil. 

In  planning  the  location  of  the  various  crops  in  the  garden, 
due  consideration  should  be  given  to  the  matter  of  succession  in  order 
that  the  land  may  be  occupied  at  all  times.  As  a  rule  it  would  not 
be  best  to  have  a  second  planting  of  the  same  crop  follow  the 
first,  but  some  such  arrangement  as  early  peas  followed  by  celery, 


FIELD  'AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  7 

or  early  cabbage  or  potatoes  followed  by  late  beans  or  corn,  and 
similar  combinations,  are  more  satisfactory.  In  the  South  as  many 
as  three  crops  may  be  grown  one  after  the  other  on  the  same  land, 
but  at  the  extreme  north,  where  the  season  is  short,  but  one  crop 
can  be  grown,  or  possibly  two  by  some  such  combination  as  early 
peas  followed  by  turnips. — (F.  B.  255.) 

FERTILIZERS. 

The  kind  of  fertilizer  employed  has  a  marked  influence  upon 
the  character  and  quality  of  the  vegetables  produced.  For  the  gar- 
den only  those  fertilizers  that  have  been  carefully  prepared  should  be 
used.  Fertilizers  of  organic  composition,  such  as  barnyard  manure, 
should  have  passed  through  the  fermenting  stage  before  being  used. 
The  use  of  night  soil  generally  is  not  to  be  recommended,  as  its 
application,  unless  properly  treated  for  the  destruction  of  disease 
germs,  may  prove  dangerous  to  health. 

BARNYARD    MANURE. 

For  garden  crops  there  is  no  fertilizer  that  will  compare  with 
good,  well-rotted  barnyard  manure.  In  localities  where  a  supply 
of  such  manure  can  not  be  secured  it  will  be  necessary  to  depend 
upon  commercial  fertilizers,  but  the  results  are  rarely  so  satisfactory. 
In  selecting  manure  for  the  garden,  care  should  be  taken  that  it 
does  not  contain  any  element  that  will  be  injurious  to  the  soil. 
An  excess  of  sawdust  or  shavings  used  as  bedding  will  have  a  ten- 
dency to  produce  sourness  in  the  soil.  Chicken,  pigeon,  and  sheep 
manures  rank  high  as  fertilizers,  their  value  being  somewhat  greater 
than  ordinary  barnyard  manures,  and  almost  as  great  as  some  of 
the  lower  grades  of  commercial  fertilizers.  The  manure  from  fowls 
is  especially  adapted  for  dropping  in  the  hills  or  rows  of  plants. 

COMMERCIAL  FERTILIZERS. 

Commercial  fertilizers  are  sold  under  a  guaranteed  analysis, 
and  generally  at  a  price  consistent  with  their  fertilizing  value.  No 
definite  rule  can  be  given  for  the  kind  or  quantity  of  fertilizer  to  be 
applied,  as  this  varies  with  the  crop  and  the  land.  At  first  the  only 
safe  procedure  is  to  use  a  good  high-grade  fertilizer  at  the  rate  of 
from  1,000  to  2,000  pounds  to  the  acre  and  note  the  results.  Mar- 
ket gardeners  frequently  apply  as  much  as  2,500  pounds  of  high- 
grade  fertilizer  per  acre  each  year.  Farmers  who  do  not  have 
sufficient  barnyard  manure  for  their  crops  should  begin  gradually 
to  use  the  commercial  fertilizers. — (F.  B.  255.) 

PROFITS  FROM  THE  USE  OF  FERTILIZERS. 

The  aim  usually  in  the  use  of  artificial  fertilizers  is  to  so  supple- 
ment soil  supplies  of  plant-food  as  to  obtain  a  profit,  and,  as  already 
intimated,  the  profits  for  the  different  crops  will  be  in  proportion  to 
their  economical  use  of  the  desired  constituent.  Still,  one  should 
not  be  deterred  from  the  use  of  fertilizing  materials,  even  if  the 
conditions  should  render  the  application  apparently  wasteful — that 
is,  the  farmer  should  estimate  the  increase  that  it  is  necessary  for  him 
to  obtain,  in  order  to  be  regarded  as  profitable,  and  if  only  this  is 
obtained,  he  should  not  be  discouraged.  Many  persons  seem  to 
have  gotten  the  impression  that  the  use  of  fertilizers  is  a  gamble 


8  TEE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

at  best,  and  are  not  satisfied  unless  the  returns  from  the  investment 
in  fertilizers  are  disproportionately  large.  We  very  often  hear  the 
statement  that  by  the  use  of  certain  fertilizers  the  crop  is  doubled 
or  tripled,  as  if  this  were  a  remarkable  occurrence,  and  partook  of 
the  nature  of  a  mystery.  Such  results  are  not  mysterious;  they 
can  be  readily  explained.  In  an  experiment  on  celery  it  is  shown 
that  the  weight  of  celery  from  an  application  of  400  pounds  per 
acre  of  nitrate  of  soda  is  two  and  one-half  times  greater  than  on 
the  land  upon  which  no  nitrate  was  used,  and  that  very  great  profit 
followed  its  use.  This  result  is  not  mysterious — the  nitrogen  ap- 
plied, if  all  had  been  used  by  the  crop,  would  have  given  a  still 
greater  increase ;  it  simply  shows  that  where  no  extra  nitrogen  had 
been  applied  the  plant  was  not  able  to  obtain  enough  to  make  the 
crop  what  the  conditions  of  the  season  and  soil,  in  other  respects, 
permitted.  These  favorable  conditions,  however,  are  not  uniform, 
and  variations  in  return  from  definite  application  must  be  expected. 
It  is  quite  possible  to  have  a  return  of  $50  per  acre  from  the  use 
of  $5  worth  of  nitrate  of  soda  on  crops  of  high  value,  as,  for  ex- 
ample, early  tomatoes,  beets,  cabbage,  etc.  This  is  an  extraordinary 
return  for  the  money  invested  and  labor  involved;  »still,  if  the 
value  of  the  increased  crop  from  its  use  was  but  $10,  it  should  be 
regarded  as  a  profitable  investment,  since  no  more  land  is  required, 
and  but  little  more  capital  with  this  return.  The  waste  of  nitrogen, 
does  not  result  in  loss. 

DANGER  OP  LOSS  OP  NITRATES  BY  LEACHING. 

The  chief  difficulties  in  the  use  of  nitrate  of  soda  are  due  to 
promptness  in  its  solubility  and  availability.  The  fact  that  it  is  so 
soluble  carries  with  it  the  very  grave  danger  that  losses  by  leaching 
may  occur  if  the  conditions  of  soil  and  crop  at  the  time  of  its 
application  are  not  favorable  for  a  rapid  absorption  of  the  nitrate  by 
the  plant.  This  danger  is  greater  if  it  is  applied  to  the  soil  before 
rapid  growth,  when  there  is  a  limited  number  of  plants  that  have 
not  made  much  growth,  or  whose  roots  have  not  taken  possession  of 
the  soil,  as  in  the  case  of  the  vegetable  crops.  In  meadows,  on  the 
other  hand,  or  in  grain  crops,  where  there  are  a  large  number  of 
plants  per  unit  of  area,  and  in  orchards  or  berry  patches,  where 
there  are  fewer  plants,  but  a  wider  distribution  of  the  feeding  roots, 
losses  are  not  so  liable  to  occur.  There  may  be,  therefore,  great 
disappointment  in  the  returns  from  the  use  of  nitrate  of  soda,  if 
opinions  as  to  its  usefulness  are  based  entirely  upon  its  availability. 
Nevertheless,  because  no  unknown  conditions  enter  in,  in  refer- 
ence to  its  availability,  it  is  possible  to  avoid,  in  a  great  degree,  the 
losses  liable  to  occur,  and  thus  to  secure  a  maximum  return  from 
the  application  of  this  form  of  nitrogen. 

THE  INFLUENCE   OP  QUANTITY  APPLIED   AND   METHOD   OP 
APPLICATION. 

If  the  quantity  applied  is  too  small  to  meet  the  demands  of  the 
crop,  unless  all  seasonal  conditions  are  favorable,  the  chances  ara 
that  the  results  will  not  be  completely  satisfactory,  as  weather  con- 
ditions are  not  likely  to  be  perfect ;  it  may  be  too  wet  or  too  dry,  too 


LIQUID  MANURE  IS  ONE  OF  THE  BEST  ACTING  FERTILISEKS 


FIELD  'AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  9 

cold  or  too  hot,  and  hence,  during  certain  periods,  the  plants  would 
not  be  able  to  obtain  their  food — that  is,  it  would  be  impossible  for 
the  plant  to  absorb  always  its  food  uniformly,  or  in  such  amounts 
and  at  such  times  as  would  result  in  the  best  development  of  the 
plant.  In  all  cases  an  amount  should  be  applied  that  would  exceed 
the  needed  requirement  under  perfect  conditions. 

In  the  second  place,  if  the  quantity  found  to  be  necessary  for 
a  definite  increase  of  crop,  under  average  conditions,  were  all  applied 
at  once,  say  in  the  early  spring,  a  greater  opportunity  would  be 
offered  for  losses  from  leaching  than  would  be  the  case  if  the  material 
were  given  in  successive  dressings,  so  that  the  losses  due  to  the 
escape  of  the  nitrogen  would  be  minimized;  on  the  other  hand,  if 
no  losses  occurred,  the  plant  might  take  up  more  than  could  be 
utilized  in  a  normal  development,  thus  defeating  the  purpose,  be- 
cause resulting  in  a  product  of  less  commercial  value.  This  would 
apply,  of  course,  only  in  the  case  of  those  crops  that  are  injured 
by  abnormal  development  in  certain  directions,  as,  for  example,  too 
large  a  proportion  of  straw  in  cereal  grains,  too  large  a  root  in 
sugar  beets,  etc.  All  these  difficulties  may  be  obviated  by  a  frac- 
tional application,  or,  in  other  words,  by  supplying  the  nitrogen 
at  the  time  and  in  the  quantity  best  adapted  for  the  plant  and  for  the 
purpose  in  view  in  its  growth.  The  results  from  the  use  of  nitrogen 
may  be  also  unsatisfactory  if  nitrogen  only  of  the  elements  essen- 
tial is  used.  The  best  results  from  the  use  of  nitrate  can  come 
only  when  there  exist  in  the  soil,  or  are  applied  with  it,  sufficient 
amounts  of  the  mineral  elements  to  enable  the  plant  to  obtain  a  food 
suited  to  its  needs — nitrogen  is  but  one  element  of  plant  food.— 
(N.  J.  A.  E.  Sta.,  157.) 

PREPARATION"  OP  THE   SOIL. 

Where  there  is  considerable  choice  in  the  location  of  the  garden 
plot,  it  is  often  possible  to  select  land  that  will  require  very  little 
special  preparation.  On  the  other  hand,  it  may  be  necessary  to 
take  an  undesirable  soil  and  bring  it  into  suitable  condition,  and  it 
is  generally  surprising  to  note  the  change  that  can  be  wrought  in 
a  single  season. 

Plowing. — Autumn  is  the  time  for  plowing  hard  or  stiff  clay 
soils,  especially  if  in  a  part  of  the  country  where  freezing  takes  place, 
as  the  action  of  the  frost  during  the  winter  will  break  the  soil  into 
fine  particles  and  render  it  suitable  for  planting.  Sandy  loams  and 
soils  that  contain  a  large  amount  of  humus  may  be  plowed  in  the 
spring,  but  the  work  should  be  done  early  in  order  that  the  soil  may 
settle^  before  planting.  In  the  Southern  States,  where  there  is  not 
sufficient  frost  to  mellow  the  soil,  this  process  must  be  accomplished 
by  means  of  frequent  cultivations,  in  order  that  the  air  may  act  upon 
the  soil  particles.  It  is  desirable  to  plow  the  garden  early,  at  least 
a  few  days  sooner  than  for  general  field  crops. 

Sandy  soils  will  bear  plowing  much  earlier  than  heavy  clay 
soils.  The  usual  test  is  to  squeeze  together  a  handful,  and  if  the 
soil  adheres  in  a  ball  it  is  too  wet  for  working.  In  the  garden 
greater  depth  of  plowing  should  be  practiced  than  for  ordinary  farm 


10  TEE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

crops,  as  the  roots  of  many  of  the  vegetables  go  deeply  into  the  soil. 
Subsoiling  will  be  found  advantageous  in  most  cases,  as  the  drainage 
and  general  movement  of  the  soil  moisture  will  be  improved  thereby. 

Hand  spading  should  be  resorted  to  only  in  very  small  gardens 
or  where  it  is  desirable  to  prepare  a  small  area  very  thoroughly. 

Smoothing  and  Pulverizing  the  Soil. — After  plowing,  the  next 
important  step  is  to  smooth  and  pulverize  the  soil.  If  the  soil  be 
wefi  prepared  before  planting,  the  work  of  caring  for  the  crops  will 
be  very  materially  lessened.  It  is  not  sufficient  that  the  land  be 
smooth  and  fine  on  top,  but  the  pulverizing  process  should  extend  as 
deep  as  the  plowing.  Some  gardeners  prefer  to  thoroughly  cut  the 
land  with  a  disk  harrow  before  plowing,  so  that  when  it  is  turned 
by  the  plow  the  bottom  soil  will  be  fine  and  mellow.  After  the  plow 
the  disk  or  cutting  harrow  is  again  brought  into  play  and  the  pul- 
verizing process  completed.  If  the  soil  is  a  trifle  too  dry  and  con- 
tains lumps,  it  may  be  necessary  to  use  some  form  of  roller  or  clod 
crusher  to  bring  it  down.  For  smoothing  the  surface  and  filling  up 
depressions  a  float  or  drag  made  from  planks  or  scantlings  will  be 
found  serviceable. 

TIME  OF  PLANTING. 

No  definite  rule  can  be  given  regarding  the  time  for  planting 
seeds  and  plants  in  the  garden,  for  the  date  varies  with  the  locality 
and  the  time  that  it  is  desired  to  have  the  crop  mature.  A  little 
practice  will  soon  determine  when  and  how  often  sowings  should  be 
made  in  order  to  escape  frost  and1  mature  the  crop  at  a  time  when  it 
will  be  most  useful.  Certain  crops  will  not  thrive  during  the  heated 
part  of  the  summer,  and  their  time  of  planting  must  be  planned 
accordingly. 

THE  SELECTION  AND  PURCHASE  OF  GARDEN  SEEDS. 

In  order  to  have  a  good  garden  it  is  necessary  to  plant  good 
seeds.  It  is  not  alone  essential  that  the  seeds  be  capable  of  growing; 
they  must  be  capable  of  producing  a  crop  of  the  desired  quality, 
under  the  conditions  existing  where  the  gardening  is  to  be  done. 
Some  varieties  of  vegetables  are  restricted  in  their  adaptations,  while 
others  thrive  over  a  wide  range  of  territory  and  under  widely  differ- 
ent conditions  of  soil  and  climate.  If  the  behavior  of  different 
varieties  in  a  given  locality  is  not  known,  the  safe  plan  to  follow 
in  selecting  varieties  for  planting  is  to  choose  mainly  those  that  have 
proved  themselves  adapted  to  a  wide  range  of  conditions  and  have 
thereby  become  recognized  as  standard  sorts.  The  newer  varieties 
may  be  tested  in  small  quantities  until  their  suitableness  for  a  given 
place  and  purpose  has  been  determined.  Particular  care  should  be 
taken  to  select  varieties  that  are  capable  of  yielding  a  product  of  high 
quality.  Such  varieties  are  numerous,  and  some  are  better  for  one 
region  than  another. 

It  is  always  a  safe  plan  to  have  a  little  more  seed  on  hand  than 
is  actually  needed  to  plant  the  area  desired.  Sometimes  the  first 
planting  of  a  given  crop  is  destroyed  by  frost  or  insects,  making  re- 
planting necessary.  In  such  a  case,  delay  in  replanting  could  be 
avoided  by  having  the  seeds  on  hand.  The  additional  expense  L< 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  11 

slight  compared  with  the  value  of  the  crop.  In  the  case  of  many 
seeds,  an  ounce  costs  but  little  more  than  a  packet ;  and  in  such  cases, 
it  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to  purchase  an  ounce,  even  though  a  packet 
might  contain  sufficient  seed  to  barely  plant  the  desired  area.  The 
more  expensive  seeds  may  be  purchased  in  smaller  quantities,  with 
less  margin  between  the  actual  amount  required  and  the  quantity 
purchased.— (U.  111.  B.  154.) 

SEED  SOWING. 

Garden  seeds  should  always  be  sown  in  straight  rows  regardless 
of  where  the  planting  is  made.  If  a  window  box  is  employed  for 
starting  early  plants  in  a  dwelling,  the  soil  should  be  well  firmed 
and  then  laid  off  in  straight  rows  about  2  inches  apart.  The  same 
method  holds  good  for  planting  seeds  in  a  hotbed,  cold  frame,  or 
bed  in  the  garden,  except  that  the  rows  should  be  farther  apart  than 
in  the  window  box.  By  planting  in  straight  rows  the  seedlings  will 
be  more  uniform  in  size  and  shape,  and  thinning  and  cultivating 
will  be  more  easily  accomplished.  In  all  cases  where  the  soil  of  the 
seed  bed  is  not  too  wet  it  should  be  well  firmed  or  pressed  down 
before  laying  off  and  marking  for  sowing  the  seeds.  After  the  seeds 
are  sown  and  covered,  the  surface  should  again  be  firmed  by  means 
of  a  smooth  board. 

No  definite  rule  can  be  given  for  the  depth  to  which  seeds 
should  be  planted,  for  the  depth  should  vary  with  the  kind  of  seed 
and  with  the  character  and  condition  of  the  soil.  In  heavy  clay  and 
moist  soils  the  covering  should  be  lighter  than  in  sandy  or  dry  soils. 
In  all  cases  the  depth  should  be  uniform,  and  when  planting  seeds 
in  boxes  or  a  bed  the  grooves  in  which  the  seeds  are  planted  should 
be  made  with  the  edge  of  a  thin  lath. — (F.  B.  255.) 

Planting. — The  most  distinctive  feature  of  the  garden  on  the 
farm  should  be  the  reduction  of  hand  labor  to  a  minimum.  In 
planting  the  garden,  therefore,  it  should  be  laid  out  in  long  rows, 
sufficiently  far  apart  to  permit  the  use  of  a  horse  and  cultivator  in 
tending  the  crops.  Time  and  confusion  will  also  be  saved  if  the 
vegetables  are  grouped  according  to  their  cultural  requirements,  and 
the  number  of  plantings  made  as  small  as  is  consistent  with  the  de- 
mands of  the  various  crops.  Each  group  of  crops  may  then  be> 
planted  and  tended  as  one  crop,  and  the  garden  operations  thus 
greatly  simplified.  When  more  than  one  planting  of  a  given  crop 
is  desired  for  the  sake  of  securing  a  succession,  the  second  planting 
may  be  put  in  at  the  same  time  that  other  crops  are  being  planted, 
so  that  even  in  this  case,  the  number  of  plantings  need  not  be  multi- 
plied. The  use  of  two  or  more  varieties  of  the  same  vegetable,  differ- 
ing in  their  time  of  maturity,  will  also  aid  in  keeping  down  the 
number  of  different  plantings. 

The  arrangement  of  the  garden  as  to  length  of  rows  and  time 
of  planting,  is  not  the  only  labor  saving  feature  that  should  charac- 
terize the  typical  farmer's  garden.  Field  methods  should  be  prac- 
ticed in  preparing  the  land  for  planting,  and  as  much  preliminary 
work  done  in  the  fall  as  is  possible,  for  the  sake  of  both  securing  an 
early  garden  and  reducing  the  amount  of  labor  in  spring.  After 


12  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

the  land  is  cleared  of  refuse  from  preceding  crops,  it  should  be 
heavily  manured,  and  plowed  in  the  fall.  The  amount  of  manure 
to  be  applied  will  depend  somewhat  upon  the  fertility  of  the  land, 
but  more  largely  upon  the  trueness  of  the  farmer's  conception  of  the 
plant  food  requirements  of  garden  crops.  The  best  gardens  are 
possible  only  where  plant  is  supplied  much  more  liberally  than 
is  considered  ample  for  field  crops.  Forty  tons  of  manure  per  acre 
is  a  very  moderate  application  for  garden  crops,  and  this  amount 
should  be  applied  annually,  even  on  soils  already  rich,  if  maximum 
crops  of  vegetables  are  to  be  grown. 

The  plowing  under  of  manure  in  the  fall  hastens  the  drying 
put  of  the  soil  in  the  spring,  so  that  planting  may  begin  earlier  than 
if  the  manuring  and  plowing  were  deferred  until  spring.  This  is 
both  because  the  soil  actually  dries  out  earlier,  and  also  because  no 
time  is  lost  in  manuring  or  plowing  after  the  soil  has  reached  work- 
able condition.  It  often  happens  that  early  in  the  spring  when  the 
cool  season  crops  should  be  planted,  the  soil  remains  in  ideal  condi- 
tion for  working  only  a  brief  period,  and  then  becomes  so  thoroughly 
wet  by  copious  rains  that  further  garden  work  is  precluded  for  two 
or  three  weeks.  If  the  manuring  and  plowing  have  been  done  in 
the  fall,  it  is  often  possible  to  plant  the  early  vegetables  in  the  brief 
period  during  which  the  soil  is  fit  to  work,  while  otherwise  this  entire 
period  might  be  expended  in  making  preparations,  and  the  actual 
planting  necessarily  deferred  until  the  next  time  the  soil  was  dry. 
Since  the  success  of  many  of  the  early  crops  depends  upon  early 
planting,  the  wisdom  of  fall  preparation  is  apparent, 

If  the  land  has  been  manured  and  plowed  in  the  fall,  and  is 
worked  at  the  proper  time  in  spring,  very  little  labor  is  necessary 
in  the  preparation  of  a  seed-bed  for  the  early  planting.  Soil  con- 
taining sufficient  humus  to  grow  vegetable  crops  advantageously, 
can  be  fitted  for  planting  without  the  use  of  hand  tools,  if  the  pre- 
caution is  taken  to  work  it  at  the  exact  time  it  reaches  the  right 
degree  of  dryness.  It  will  then  crumble  readily,  and  a  seed-bed  can 
be  prepared  by  the  use  of  a  disk,  harrow,  and  planker.  The  use  of 
these  tools  saves  an  enormous  amount  of  labor,  and  is  a  vast  improve- 
ment over  the  old  method  of  using  a  hoe  and  rake. 

The  actual  planting  of  the  garden  is  a  simple  matter,  provided 
a  definite  plan  has  previously  been  made,  so  that  no  time  is  lost  in 
deciding  which  vegetable  to  plant  first,  where  to  plant  it,  or  how 
much  to  plant.  In  the  home  garden,  only  a  small  amount  of  seed 
of  each  kind  is  planted,  so  that  a  seed  drill  cannot  be  used  to  advan- 
tage, and  the  planting  is  therefore  almost  invariably  done  by  hand. 
For  the  small  vegetables,  sown  in  drills,  the  planting  involves  four 
distinct  operations:  (1)  making  the  drills,  (2)  dropping  the  seed, 
(3)  covering,  and  (4)  firming.  The  most  rapid  way  of  making  the 
drills  in  a  garden  to  be  planted  in  long  rows  is  to  use  a  marker  that 
makes  three  or  four  drills  each  time  it  is  drawn  across  the  area  to  be 
planted.  With  a  medium  weight  marker,  and  the  soil  in  proper 
condition  for  planting,  the  marks  will  be  of  the  proper 
depth  for  planting  seeds  of  any  of  the  smaller  vegetables  usually 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  13 

sown  in  drills.  For  peas  or  beans  a  deeper  drill  may  be  made  with, 
the  plow  attachment  of  a  wheel  hoe.  After  the  seed  is  dropped,  it 
is  covered  with  a  rake,  or  in  the  case  of  deep  planting,  with  a  hoe,  or 
a  wheel  hoe.  The  soil  is  firmed  over  the  seed  by  the  use  of  the  feet, 
the  back  of  a  hoe,  or  a  garden  roller.  Whatever  the  means  em- 
ployed, the  firming  must  be  thorough,  especially  in  light  soil  or  dry 
weather ;  for  unless  the  soil  is  brought  in  close  contact  with  the  seeds, 
they  will  not  germinate. — (U.  111.  B.  154.) 

Cultivation. — By  the  proper  cultivation  of  the  garden  there  is 
accomplished  three  things :  (1)  The  weeds  are  kept  out  so  that  they 
do  not  shade  or  take  away  valuable  plant  food  and  moisture  from  the 
plants  which  one  desires  to  perfect.  (2)  The  surface  soil  is  brought 
into  the  best  condition  to  resist  drouth ;  that  is,  into  the  best  condition 
for  availing  itself  to  the  utmost  of  the  stores  of  water  in  the  subsoil 
and  to  prevent  the  evaporation  of  this  water  from  the  surface  soil. 
(3)  The  stores  of  insoluble  plant  food  are  made  soluble  by  the 
chemical  action  and  fermentation,  which  are  increased  by  loosening 
the  soil,  thereby  letting  in  the  air. 

Keeping  Out  the  Weeds. — The  methods  best  adapted  for  keeping 
the  weeds  out  of  the  garden  are  many  and  varied,  and  depend  much 
upon  the  condition  and  kind  of  soil  in  which  the  weeds  grow ;  upon 
the  kind  of  crop  and  upon  the  habits  of  the  weeds  themselves.  The 
most  important  step  in  making  easy  the  prevention  of  weeds  in  the 
garden  is  the  harrowing  or  other  thorough  cultivation  of  the  land 
just  before  the  planting  of  the  seed,  to  kill  the  young  weeds.  If  this 
is  done  thoroughly,  the  weeds  do  not  have  a  better  chance  than  the 
crop.  If  this  is  not  done,  the  weeds  will  be  ahead  of  the  crop  in 
growth,  and  if  started  even  ever  so  little  when  the  crop  is  planted,  the 
result  generally  is  that  the  crop  is  seriously  overgrown  by  them  before 
it  is  large  enough  to  be  cultivated.  This  is  a  common  mistake,  and 
is,  perhaps,  responsible  for  more  failures  in  the  garden  than  any 
other  factor  which  enters  into  the  consideration  of  this  subject;  and 
it  is  a  very  simple  matter  to  prevent  any  trouble  from  this  source 
if  a  little  foresight  is  exercised. 

Early  Cultivation  to  Kill  Weeds. — The  next  most  important 
factor  in  the  prevention  of  weeds  in  the  garden  is  early  cultivation. 
In  the  case  of  seeds  that  require  a  long  time  to  germinate,  it  is  an 
excellent  plan  to  lightly  rake  over  the  land  with  an  ordinary  fine- 
toothed  rake,  even  before  the  crop  appears  above  the  ground,  pro- 
viding the  work  is  so  carefully  done  as  not  to  disturb  the  seeds. 
When  the  seed  is  sown  with  a  drill,  the  line  of  the  row  may  be 
plainly  seen  even  before  the  plants  come  up,  thus  making  it  easy  to 
commence  cultivating  it  in  advance  of  the  weeds.  In  case  of  such 
crops  as  carrots,  onions,  parsnips  and  beets,  which  are  quite  delicate 
when  young,  cultivation  should  begin  with  some  hand  garden  culti- 
vator, even  if  it  is  intended  later  on  to  cultivate  with  a  horse,  and 
the  crop  is  planted  with  this  purpose  in  view.  Such  close  and  care- 
ful work  cannot  be  done  with  any  horse  implement  now  in  use  as 
with  the  best  hand  implements.  With  proper  tools,  the  work  may 
be  done  nearly  as  quickly  by  hand  as  by  horse  power,  and  far  more 


U  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

perfectly  when  the  plants  are  small.  Careful  early  cultivation  is 
of  the  utmost  importance,  since,  if  the  weeds  are  removed  when  they 
are  young,  the  work  of  weeding  is  very  small.  If  allowed  to  remain 
until  well  rooted,  their  removal  is  often  a  very  serious  matter,  and 
frequently,  if  neglected  at  this  early  stage,  the  weeds  become  so 
firmly  established  as  to  make  it  a  question  whether  to  remove  them 
or  plow  under  the  whole  crop ;  and  often  it  is  the  part  of  wisdom  to 
adopt  the  latter  alternative.  Aside  from  its  effect  in  the  prevention 
of  weeds,  early  cultivation  is  of  great  value  in  breaking  up  the  crust 
that  packs  firmly  around  the  tender  growing  stems  of  plants,  and 
that  seriously  interferes  with  their  growth.  It  is  also,  like  all  sur- 
face cultivation,  of  aid  in  the  conservation  of  moisture  in  the  soil. 

Importance  of  Not  Allowing  Weeds  to  Go  to  Seed. — A  common 
source  of  weed  infection  is  often  found  in  the  few  weeds  that  are 
allowed  to  go  to  seed  toward  the  end  of  the  growing  season  in  the 
maturing  crop  or  after  the  crop  has  been  gathered.  To  some  farm- 
ers it  often  seems  a  small  matter  to  allow  a  few  plants  of  pig-weed, 
purslane,  tumble  weed  and  weeds  of  other  kinds  to  go  to  seed  in  the 
garden,  but  absolute  cleanliness  should  be  the  only  rule  in  this  par- 
ticular, and  it  is  by  far  the  most  economical  in  practice  in  the  long 
run.  It  requires  but  little  labor  and  saves  much  useless  expense 
to  destroy  weeds  that  are  going  to  seed.  If  the  preventives  for  weeds 
suggested  are  closely  followed  hand  weeding  will  be  reduced  to  a 
minimum  and  will  often  be  unnecessary  with  any  crop. 

Weed  Seeds  in  Manure  for  the  Garden. — The  manure  applied 
to  the  garden  is  often  coarse  and  contains  many  weed  seeds,  and  is 
a  fruitful  source  of  weed  infection.  The  manure  intended  for  the 
garden  that  contains  the  seeds  of  weeds  should  be  piled  up  and  al- 
lowed to  ferment  until  the  whole  mass  is  thoroughly  rotted.  By 
this  means  the  seeds  in  it  will  be  killed.  But  in  order  to  rot  manure 
to  best  advantage,  it  should  be  forked  over  occasionally  when  well 
warmed  up  by  fermentation,  and  the  whole  turned  over,  with  the 
outside  of  the  pile  thrown  into  the  center.  If  dry,  it  should  be 
watered  enough  to  enable  fermentation  to  continue,  and  to  prevent 
"fire-fanging."  It  is  seldom  advisable  to  use  fresh  manure  in  the 
garden,  and  manure  should  only  be  applied  in  this  condition  when 
free  from  weeds,  and  then  only  for  some  late-maturing  crops,  in 
which  case  there  will  be  time  for  it  to  rot  before  the  crops  need  it. 
All  early  crops  need  well  rotted  manure,  and  require  it  in  much 
larger  quantities  than  do  the  late-maturing  crops. — (U.  Minn. 
A.  E.  S.  38.) 

General  Cultivation. — The  methods  to  be  pursued  in  the  gen- 
eral cultivation  of  garden  crops  will  vary  somewhat,  according  to  the 
soil,  season  and  crop.  However,  it  is  very  important  to  remember 
that  the  destruction  of  weeds  is  but  a  small  part  of  the  work  of  cul- 
tivation. The  most  important  part  is  to  so  fit  the  soil  that  it  may 
best  withstand  drouth.  This  is  accomplished  by  frequent  shallow 
cultivation  during  the  period  of  growth.  The  first  implements  to 
use  in  the  care  of  such  crops  as  are  generally  cultivated  by  hand  are 
those  that  work  the  soil  to  only  a  very  slight  depth,  close  to  the 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  15 

plants.  Such  implements  may  be  used  just  as  the  seedlings  are 
creaking  ground.  As  soon  as  the  plants  have  gained  some  little 
strength,  implements  _  should  be  used  that  will  go  deeper,  until  a 
depth  of  two  or  three  inches  can  be  easily  worked  without  endanger- 
ing the  safety  of  the  crop  by  covering  the  plants  with  dirt.  It  is 
doubtful  if  any  of  our  garden  crops  should  ever  be  cultivated  more 
than  three  inches  deep,  and  it  is  very  certain  that  many  crops  are 
injured  by  cultivating  deeply  very  close  to  the  plants,  in  which  case 
the  roots  are  cut  off  near  their  upper  ends  and  thus  wholly  destroyed. 
Cultivation  in  a  period  of  drouth  results  in  forming  a  mulch  or 
blanket  of  dry  earth  on  the  surface  of  the  land,  which  prevents  the 
moisture  from  passing  into  the  atmosphere,  and  a  rather  shallow 
blanket,  say  two  inches  deep,  accomplishes  this  purpose.  A  com- 
pact subsoil  readily  transmits  the  water  upwards  to  the  surface  soil, 
in  the  same  manner  that  a  lamp  wick  carries  the  oil  to  the  flame. 
At  the  surface  the  soil  water  is  prevented  from  evaporating  by  a 
blanket  of  loose  earth,  and  is  thus  saved  in  the  upper  subsoil  and 
lower  and  middle  Darts  of  the  furrow  slice  for  the  roots  of  the  crop ; 
loose  surface  soil  is  a  good  non-conductor  of  water.  During  the 
growth  of  a  crop,  the  surface  of  the  ground  should  never  be  left  long 
with  a  crust  on  it,  but  should  be  stirred  after  each  rain  or  after 
artificially  watering. 

TOOLS. 

There  are  a  number  of  one-horse  cultivators  that  are  especially 
adapted  for  work  in  the  garden.  These  may  be  provided  with  sev- 
eral sizes  of  teeth  and  shovels,  and  are  easily  transformed  for  various 
kinds  of  work.  In  working  the  crops  while  they  are  small  the  har- 
row or  smaller  teeth  may  be  used,  and  later  when  the  plants  become 
larger  the  size  of  the  shovels  may  be  increased.  Many  gardeners, 
however,  prefer  to  use  the  harrow  teeth  at  all  times.  When  it  is  de- 
sirable to  ridge  up  the  soil  around  a  crop,  the  wings,  or  hillers,  may 
be  put  on  either  side  of  the  cultivator.  A  one-horse  turning  plow 
is  useful  for  running  off  rows  or  throwing  up  ridges.  Aside  from 
the  horse  tools  in  general  use  on  the  farm,  there  are  only  one  or  two 
cultivators  that  will  be  required  for  the  garden,  and  these  are  not 
expensive. 

The  outfit  of  hand  tools  for  the  garden  should  include  a  spade, 
a  spading  fork,  a  cut-steel  rake,  a  10-foot  measuring  pole,  a  line  for 
laying  off  rows,  a  standard  hoe,  a  narrow  hoe,  dibbles,  a  trowel,  an 
assortment  of  hand  weeders,  a  watering  can,  a  wheelbarrow,  and  if 
the  work  is  to  be  done  largely  by  hand  the  outfit  should  also  include 
gome  form  of  wheel  hoe,  of  which  there  are  a  number  on  the  market. 
MULCHING. 

The  term  mulch  as  generally  used  means  a  layer  of  litter 
applied  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  primarily  for  the  purpose  of 
retarding  evaporation  from  the  soil.  Mulches  are  thus  used  as  a 
substitute  for  cultivation  to  conserve  the  moisture  in  the  soil  in 
summer  and  to  keep  down  weeds.  They  are  also  used  as  winter  and 
spring  coverings  for  low-growing  small  fruits  to  retard  flowering 
and  fruiting  and  thus  to  protect  them  from  injury  by  late  frosts. 


16  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

[What  is  termed  a  "soil  mulch"  or  "dust  mulch"  is  maintained  by 
frequent  cultivation  of  the  surface  soil,  and,  like  the  ordinary  mulch, 
is  an  effective  means  of  retarding  evaporation.  Among  the  common 
materials  used  for  mulching  crops  are  straw,  marsh  hay,  and  leaves. 
These  materials  are  usually  applied  to  the  whole  surface  of  the  soil 
in  layers  4  to  6  inches  deep.  Mulching  crops  with  straw  or  other 
litter  is  not  very  common.  On  a  large  scale  it  is  too  expensive. 
It  frequently  happens  on  a  farm,  however,  that  spring  finds  an 
old  straw  stack  in  the  barnyard  that  will  be  practically  valueless  for 
feed  the  following  winter.  Can  it  be  used  profitably  as  a  mulch? 

This  question  was  investigated  quite  thoroughly  by  the  Nebraska 
Station.  Experiments  were  made  to  determine  how  mulching 
vegetables  compares  with  the  most  thorough  cultivation  as  a  general 
farm  practice.  Old  straw  was  the  material  used.  After  settling, 
the  layer  applied  was  about  4  inches  deep.  A  large  number  of 
different  vegetables  were  grown.  In  general  it  was  found  that 
mulching  in  Nebraska  gave  much  better  results  in  normal  or  dry 
seasons  than  in  wet  seasons. 

The  value  of  the  mulch  in  conserving  the  soil  moisture  was 
found  to  be  quite  marked.  Soil  samples  taken  one  season  in  July 
and  August  showed  the  moisture  content  to  a  depth  of  6  inches  to  be 
18.2  per  cent,  as  compared  with  17.1  per  cent  in  cultivated  soil. 
When  the  mulch  was  applied  early  in  the  season  before  the  ground 
became  thoroughly  wet,  it  often  had  a  retarding  effect  on  the  growth 
of  the  vegetables.  With  early  spring  vegetables,  like  lettuce,  which 
require  only  a  few  cultivations,  it  was  found  cheaper  and  better  to 
cultivate  than  to  mulch ;  but  with  longer-growing  crops  that  require 
frequent  cultivation  throughout  the  season,  such  as  cabbage,  toma- 
toes, etc.,  mulching  usually  proved  more  effective  and  cheaper  than 
cultivation. 

The  fact  that  most  vegetables,  especially  the  more  tender  kinds, 
can  not  be  mulched,  until  they  have  become  well  established  and 
the  weather  has  become  warm,  thus  requiring  some  preliminary 
cultivation,  certainly  increases  the  labor  required  in  growing  mulched 
vegetables  over  what  would  be  necessary  if  the  mulch  could  be 
"applied  earlier.  But,  if  the  impracticability  of  early  mulching 
is  a  serious  drawback  to  the  use  of  mulches,  so  is  the  impracticability 
of  midsummer  cultivation  under  farm  conditions  a  serious  objection 
to  dependence  upon  cultivation  alone.  For  most  vegetables  mulch- 
ing should  be  used  to  supplement  cultivation  rather  than  to  displace 
it.  Such  cultivation  as  is  commonly  given  farm  gardens  is  better 
for  most  vegetables  in  early  spring  than  mulching;  but  mulching  is 
just  as  surely  better  in  midsummer  than  the  neglect  which  is  the 
common  thing  in  farm  gardens  at  that  time  of  year.  The  experi- 
ment station  tests  have  indeed  shown  mulching  to  be  better  in  many 
cases  than  the  most  thorough  cultivation  throughout  the  summer. 

The  station  tests  indicate  that  it  is  unwise  to  mulch  drilled 
onions,  lettuce,  or  sweet  corn.  The  stand  of  the  onions  and  lettuce 
is  injured  by  mulching,  while  so  few  cultivations  are  required  for 
sweet  corn  that  mulching  is  hardly  profitable,  and  in  wet  seasons 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  17 

the  yield  was  decidedly  decreased  by  mulching.  With  transplanted 
onions,  beets,  salsify,  parsley,  peas,  and  melons  the  labor  required 
and  yield  obtained  were  found  to  be  about  the  same  by  either 
method  of  culture.  With  cabbage,  tomatoes,  beans,  cucumbers, 
potatoes,  and  sweet  potatoes,  very  favorable  results  were  secured  by 
mulching.  The  yields  of  each  of  these  crops  were  considerably 
increased  by  mulching  and  the  labor  required  was  considerably  less 
than  in  case  of  cultivation  alone.  Mulched  cabbage  produced  larger 
heads  than  cultivated  cabbage,  and  there  was  less  injury  from  rot. 
The  vigor  of  tomato  plants  was  decreased  by  mulching,  but  the 
yield  of  fruit  increased.  The  fruit  was  also  cleaner  and  less  subject 
to  rot.  Mulched  cucumbers  produced  perfect  fruits  during  dry 
periods  when  the  fruit  from  the  cultivated  plants  was  small  and 
imperfect.  The  quality  of  potatoes  was  not  hurt  by  mulching 
except  in  wet  places. 

In  a  special  test  of  a  4-inch  and  8-inch  straw  mulch  and  early 
and  late  mulching  for  potatoes  a  4-inch  mulch  applied  late  in  sum- 
mer after  several  cultivations  gave  the  best  results.  In  the  case  of 
sweet  potatoes  the  vines  did  not  take  root  through  the  straw  mulch  as 
they  do  on  cultivated  ground,  which  was  considered  a  decided  ad- 
vantage for  mulching. 

On  the  whole  this  work  seems  to  indicate  that  on  the  farm 
where  cultivation  of  the  garden  is  likely  to  be  neglected  in  mid- 
summer, a  mulch  of  straw  can  be-  used  profitably  as  a  substitute. 
For  the  best  results  the  mulch  should  not  be  applied  until  the 
ground  has  become  thoroughly  warmed  up  and  after  two  or  three 
cultivations  have  been  given.  The  mulch  may  then  be  safely  applied 
to  such  vegetables  as  cabbage,  tomatoes,  potatoes,  and  beans,  and 
the  garden  left  to  take  care  of  itself  the  rest  of  the  season. 

The  same  plans  were  worked  at  the  New  Jersey  stations.  One 
season  it  was  found  that  mulching  increased  the  yield  of  sound 
fruits  of  eggplants  66.5  per  cent  and  of  tomatoes  and  peppers  about 
13  per  cent  each.  The  keeping  quality  of  cucumbers  also  appeared  to 
be  slightly  benefited  by  the  use  of  a  mulch.  The  season  following, 
which  was  considerably  more  rainy,  no  advantage  resulted  from 
mulching.  In  this  experiment  there  was  no  noticeable  difference 
in  the  effectiveness  of  new  salt  hay,  old  hay,  or  excelsior  as  a  mulch. 

iSeveral  of  the  experiment  stations  have  carried  out  experiments 
in  mulching  potatoes.  The  favorable  results  obtained  in  such  ex- 
periments in  dry  seasons  at  the  Nebraska  Station  have  already  been 
referred  to.  At  the  Michigan  Station  the  following  yields  were 
obtained:  Mulched,  167  bushels  of  potatoes  per  acre;  cultivated, 
199  bushels  per  acre.  With  another  variety  the  yield  of  mulched 
potatoes  was  252  bushels,  and  of  cultivated,  385  bushels.  The  cost 
of  cultivation  was  less  than  the  cost  of  mulching,  and  the  profit  in 
both  instances  was  in  favor  of  cultivation.  It  should  be  stated, 
however,  that  there  was  a  large  amount  of  rain  during  this  season, 
and  that  the  straw  used  as  a  mulch  contained  a  considerable  amount 
of  grain,  which  came  up  on  the  mulched  plats,  both  of  which  con- 
ditions were  unfavorable  to  mulching. 


18_  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN. 

At  the  Oklahoma  Station  the  total  potato  crop  was  increased 
about  50  per  cent  by  mulching,  the  marketable  crop  nearly  100 
per  cent,  and  the  size  of  the  tubers  about  70  per  cent.  Mulching 
potatoes  with  old  shavings  at  the  New  Jersey  stations  increased  the 
total  number  of  tubers  on  a  small  plat  about  16  per  cent  and  the 
weight  of  the  crop  about  35  per  cent.  At  the  Georgia  Station 
mulching  potatoes  with  pine  straw  was  not  found  to  be  of 
sufficient  value  to  recommend  the  practice.  These  conflicting  re- 
sults secured  with  potatoes  would  seem  to  confirm  the  conclusion 
reached  at  the  Nebraska  Station  that  mulching  is  of  greatest  value 
in  a  dry  season. 

There  is,  however,  a  drawback  to  mulching  that  may  not  at 
first  occur  to  the  reader,  viz.,  the  danger  it  involves  from  fire.  In 
dry  weather  a  lighted  match  or  cigar  dropped  upon  the  mulch  may 
easily  start  a  conflagration  that  it  may  be  impossible  to  stop  until  the 
orchard  is  destroyed.  It  gives  disaffected  trespassers  in  the  orchard 
an  excellent  opportunity  to  take  vengeance  upon  the  owner. 

The  cost  of  the  mulch  will  of  course  depend  much  upon  the 
price  at  which  the  material  may  be  obtained.  Clean  wheat,  rye,  or 
oats  straw  would  answer  the  purpose  well,  and  in  many  localities 
would  be  cheaper  than  marsh  hay.  In  some  seasons  oats  sown  as 
a  second  crop  would  grow  fast  enough  to  make  mulching  material 
by  the  time  of  frost.  In  the  vicinity  of  marshes  the  coarser  marsh 
grasses  that  have  no  value  as  hay  may  be  cut  after  the  ground  freezes 
in  autumn  and  would  make  excellent  material  for  mulching.  Corn- 
stalks have  been  suggested,  but  they  are  probably  too  coarse  to  keep 
down  weeds. 

It  has  been  suggested  that  by  sowing  rye  in  September,  and 
harvesting  the  crop  the  following  June,  and  then  sowing  the  same 
ground  to  millet,  the  rye  straw  with  the  millet  would  mulch  an 
area  of  plums  equal  to  that  on  which  the  two  crops  were  grown, 
and  would  leave  the  thrashed  rye  to  compensate  for  the  labor. 
This  is  certainly  worth  trying  by  those  who  have  no  better  source 
from  which  to  obtain  mulching. — (Nebr.  Sta.  Bui.,  79,  80.) 

IRRIGATION. 

Throughout  the  portions  of  the  country  where  rains  occur 
during  the  growing  season  it  should  not  be  necessary  to  irrigate 
except  occasionally  in  order  to  produce  the  ordinary  garden  crops. 
In  arid  regions,  where  irrigation  must  be  depended  upon  for  the 
production  of  crops,  the  system  best  adapted  for  use  in  that  particular 
locality  should  be  employed  in  the  garden.  Wherever  irrigation 
is  practiced  the  water  should  not  be  applied  until  needed,  and  then 
the  soil  should  be  thoroughly  soaked.  After  irrigation,  the  land 
should  be  cultivated  as  soon  as  the  surface  becomes  sufficiently  dry, 
and  no  more  water  should  be  applied  until  the  plants  begin  to 
show^  the  need  of  additional  moisture.  Constant  or  excessive  water- 
ing is  very  detrimental  in  every  case.^  Apply  the  water  at  any 
time  of  the  day  that  is  most  convenient  and  when  the  plants 
require  it. 

By  the  subirrigation  method  of  watering,  lines  of  farm  drain. 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  19 

tiles  or  perforated  pipes  are  laid  on  a  level  a  few  inches  below  the 
surface  of  the  soil.  This  system  is  especially  adapted  for  use  in 
backyard  gardens  where  city  water  is  available  and  where  the  area 
under  cultivation  is  small.  Subirrigation  is  expensive  to  install, 
as  the  lines  of  tiles  should  be  about  3  feet  apart,  or  one  line  for 
each  standard  row.  By  connecting  the  tiles  at  one  end  by  means 
of  a  tile  across  the  rows  the  water  may  be  discharged  into  the  tiles  at 
one  point  from  a  hose,  and  will  find  its  way  to  all  parts  of  the  sys- 
tem, entering  the  soil  through  the  openings. 

THINNING. 

Where  plants  are  not  to  be  transplanted  twice,  but  remain  in  the 
plant  bed  until  required  for  setting  in  the  garden,  it  may  be  neces- 
sary to  thin  them  somewhat.  This  part  of  the  work  should  be  done 
as  soon  as  the  plants  are  large  enough  to  pull,  and  before  they  begin 
to  "draw"  or  become  spindling  from  crowding. 

"When  thinning  plants  in  the  plant  bed  it  should  be  the  aim  to 
remove  the  centers  of  the  thick  bunches,  leaving  the  spaces  as  uni- 
form as  possible.  When  thinning  the  rows  of  seedlings  in  the  garden 
the  best  plants  should  be  allowed  to  remain,  but  due  consideration 
should  be  given  to  the  matter  of  proper  spacing.  Failure  to  thin 
plants  properly  will  invariably  result  in  the  production  of  an  in- 
ferior crop. 

There  is  a  tendency  for  some  gardeners  to  leave  the  plants  of 
carrots,  onions,  and  similar  vegetables  too  thick,  or  to  defer  the 
thinning  too  long,  with  the  intention  of  making  use  of  the  thin- 
nings. Usually  this  is  a  serious  error,  except  in  the  case  of  beets, 
which  can  be  used  quite  young  for  greens.  The  crowded  seedlings 
do  not  reach  edible  size  as  soon  as  they  would  if  not  crowded; 
and  the  removal  of  part  of  the  crowded  plants  when  they  are 
wanted  for  the  table  is  likely  to  seriously  disturb  and  impair  the 
growth  of  those  which  remain.  A  better  plan  is  to  make  at  least 
a  preliminary  thinning  as  early  as  possible,  leaving  the  plants 
perhaps  twice  as  thick  as  they  are  eventually  to  stand;  and  then  to 
pull  put  every  other  plant  after  they  reach  edible  size.  This  method 
of  thinning  is  especially  adapted  to  beets,  carrots,  lettuce  and  onions. 
The  other  root  crops,  like  parsnips  and  salsify,  should  be  thinned 
to  the  full  distance  at  the  first  thinning.— (U.  Wis.  Cir.  16;  F.  B. 
255.) 

TRANSPLANTING. 

'At  the  North,  where  the  growing  season  is  short,  it  is  necessary 
to  transplant  several  of  the  garden  crops  in  order  to  secure  strong 
plants  that  will  mature  within  the  limits  of  the  growing  season. 
In  the  Southern  States  the  season  is  longer,  and  transplanting, 
•while  desirable,  may  not  be  necessary,  as  many  crops  that  must  be 
started  indoors  at  the  North  can  be  planted  in  the  garden  where 
they  are  to  remain.  Transplanting  should  be  done  as  soon  as  the 
seedlings  are  large  enough  to  handle,  and  again  when  the  plants 
begin  to  crowd  one  another.  Aside  from  producing  more  uniform 
and  hardy  plants,  the  transplanting  process  has  several  other  very- 
marked  influences.  Certain  crops  which  are  grown  for  their  straight 


20  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

roots  are  often  injured  by  having  their  roots  bent  or  broken  in 
transplanting.  On  the  other  hand,  such  plants  as  celery,  which  at 
first  have  a  straight  root  and  are  grown  for  their  tops,  are  greatly 
benefited  by  transplanting.  In  all  cases  transplanting  has  a  ten- 
dency to  increase  the  number  of  small  roots,  and  these  are  the  main 
dependence  of  the  plant  at  the  time  it  is  set  in  the  open  ground. 

A  large  number  of  garden  crops,  including  melons,  cucumbers, 
and  beans,  do  not  transplant  readily  from  the  seed  bed  to  the  open 
ground,  and  some  special  means  for  handling  the  plants  must  be 
employed  where  extra  early  planting  is  desired.  A  common  practice 
among  gardeners  is  to  fill  pint  or  quart  berry  boxes  with  good  soil 
and  plant  a  single  hill  in  each  box. 

Another  method  is  to  cut  sods  into  pieces  about  2  inches  thick 
and  6  inches  square  and  place  them,  root  side  upward,  on  the 
greenhouse  bench  or  in  the  hotbed,  the  hills  being  planted  in  the 
loamy  soil  held  in  place  by  the  roots  of  the  grass.  When  the 
weather  becomes  sufficiently  warm,  and  it  is  desired  to  set  the 
plants  in  the  garden,  the  berry  boxes  or  pieces  of  sod  are  placed  on  a 
flat  tray  and  carried  to  the  place  where  the  planting  is  to  be  done. 
Holes  of  sufficient  size  and  depth  are  dug  and  the  boxes  or  sods 
are  simply  buried  at  the  points  where  it  is  desired  to  have  the  hills 
of  plants.  The  boxes  should  be  placed  a  little  below  the  surface 
and  fine  earth  worked  in  around  the  plants.  If  it  is  thought  desir- 
able, the  bottoms  of  the  boxes  may  be  cut  away  when  set  in  the 
garden. 

SETTING  IN   THE  OPEN  GROUND. 

A  few  hours  before  removing  plants  from  the  seed  bed  or  plant 
bed  they  should  be  well  watered  and  the  water  allowed  to  soak  into 
the  soil.  This  will  insure  a  portion  of  the  soil  adhering  to  the  roots 
and  prevent  the  plants  from  wilting.  If  the  plants  have  been 
properly  thinned  or  transplanted  it  is  often  possible  to  run  a  knife 
or  trowel  between  them,  thus  cutting  the  soil  into  cubes  that  are 
transferred  with  them  to  the  garden.  Where  the  soil  does  not  adhere 
to  the  roots  of  the  plants  it  is  well  to  puddle  them.  In  the  process 
of  puddling,  a  hole  is  dug  in  the  earth  near  the  plant  bed,  or  a 
large  pail  may  be  used  for  the  purpose,  and  a  thin  slime,  consisting 
of  clay,  cow  manure,  and  water,  is  prepared.  The  plants  are  taken 
in  small  bunches  and  their  roots  thoroughly  coated  with  this  mixture 
by  dipping  them  up  and^down  in  the  puddle  a  few  times.  Puddling 
insures  a  coating  of  moist  earth  over  the  entire  root  system  of  the 
plant,  prevents  the  air  from  reaching  the  rootlets  while  on  the 
way  to  the  garden,  and  aids  in  securing  direct  contact  between  the 
roots  and  the  soil. 

Previous  to  setting  out  plants,  the  land  should  be  worked  over 
and  put  in  good  condition,  and  everything  should  be  ready  for 
quick  operations  when  a  suitable  time  arrives.  The  rows  should 
be  measured  oft7,  but  it  is  well  to  defer  making  the  furrows  or 
digging  the  holes  until  ready  to  plant,  in  order  to  have  the  soil 
fresn.  The  time  best  suited  for  transferring  plants  from  the  plant 
bed  to  the  open  ground  is  when  there  is  considerable  moisture  in  the 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  21 

air  and  clouds  obscure  the  sun,  and  if  the  plants  can  be  set  before 
a  shower  there  will  be  no  difficulty  in  getting  them  to  grow.  Dur- 
ing seasons  when  there  is  very  little  rain  at  planting  time,  or  in 
irrigated  regions,  evening  is  the  best  time  to  set  the  plants.  It  is 
possible  to  set  plants  in  quite  dry  soil,  provided  the  roots  are  puddled 
and  the  earth  well  packed  about  them.  When  water  is  used  in 
setting  plants  it  should  be  applied  after  the  hole  has  been  partially 
filled,  and  the  moist  earth  should  then  be  covered  with  dry  soil  to 
prevent  baking.  Where  water  is  available  for  irrigation  it  will  be 
sufficient  to  puddle  the  roots  and  then  irrigate  after  the  plants  are 
all  in  place.  Plants  should  be  set  a  trifle  deeper  in  the  garden 
than  they  were  in  the  plant  bed.  The  majority  of  plants  require 
to  be  set  upright,  and  where  the  dibble  is  used  for  planting  care 
should  be  taken  that  the  soil  is  well  pressed  around  the  roots  and  no 
air  spaces  left. 

PRECAUTIONS  TO  AVOID  ATTACKS  OF  INSECTS  AND  DISEASES. 

In  the  control  of  insects  and  diseases  that  infest  garden  crops 
it  is  often  possible  to  accomplish  a  great  amount  of  good  by  careful 
sanitary  management.  In  the  autumn,  after  the  crops  have  been 
harvested,  or  as  fast  as  any  crop  is  disposed  of,  any  refuse  that 
remains  should  be  gathered  and  placed  in  the  compost  heap,  or 
burned  if  diseased  or  infested  with  insects.  Several  of  the  garden 
insects  find  protection  during  the  winter  under  boards  and  any  loose 
material  that  may  remain  in  the  garden.  Dead  vines  or  leaves 
of  plants  are  frequently  covered  with  spores  of  diseases  that  affect 
those  crops  during  the  growing  season,  and  these  should  be  burned, 
as  they  possess  very  little  fertilizing  value. 

PROTECTION  OF  PLANTS. 

Some  plants  require  protection  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun 
in  summer  or  from  cold  in  winter,  and  there  are  many  that  need 
special  protection  while  they  are  quite  small.  Seedlings  of  many 
of  the  garden  crops  are  unable  to  force  their  way  through  the  crust 
formed  on  the  soil  after  heavy  rains,  and  it  is  necessary  either  to 
break  the  crust  with  a  steel  rake  or  soften  it  by  watering. 

In  parts  of  the  country  where  the  sunshine  is  extremely  hot 
during  a  part  of  the  summer,  some  plants,  especially  those  that  are 
grown  for  salad  purposes,  are  benefited  by  shading.  Shading  is 
often  used  in  the  care  of  small  plants  when  they  are  first  trans- 
planted. 

Where  boards  are  available  they  can  be  used  for  protecting 
plants  that  have  been  set  in  rows  in  the  garden  by  placing  them 
on  the  south  side  of  the  row  at  an  angle  that  will  cast  a  shadow  over 
the  plants,  and  holding  them  in  place  by  short  stakes  driven  in  the 
ground.  Laths,  wooden  slats,  cotton  cloth,  or  shaded  sash  are  fre- 
quently used  to  protect  plant  beds  from  the  heat  of  summer. 

For  protecting  plants  from  cold  in  winter  several  kinds  of  ma- 
terials are  used,  such  as  boards,  cloth,  pine  boughs,  straw,  manure, 
or  leaves.  There  are  a  number  of  crops  of  a  tropical  nature  that 
may  be  grown  far  north,  provided  they  are  properly  protected  during 
the  winter. 


22  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

Several  of  the  annual  crops  can  be  matured  much  earlier  in  the 
spring  if  they  are  planted  in  the  autumn  and  protected  during 
the  winter.  Plants  of  this  kind  can  often  be  protected  by  means 
of  boards  set  at  an  angle  on  the  north  side  of  the  row  instead  of  on 
the  south.  A  mulch  of  manure,  straw,  or  leaves  forms  a  good 
protection,  but  care  should  be  taken  that  the  mulch  does  not  contain 
seeds  of  any  kind  or  serious  trouble  will  attend  the  further  cultiva- 
tion of  the  crop.  Plants  are  like  animals  in  that  they  require  air, 
and  care  should  be  exercised  in  putting  on  the  winter  covering  not 
to  smother  them.  Coarse,  loose  materials  are  better  for  a  winter 
covering  than  fine,  easily  compacted  substances. — (F.  B.  255.) 

HARVESTING,  PACKING  AND  SHIPPING. 

As  a  rule  the  crop  should  be  harvested  just  before  it  reaches 
maturity.  The  time  for  this  depends  somewhat  upon  the  distance 
from  the  market  and  the  method  of  shipment.  Remember  that 
it  costs  just  as  much  freight  for  a  package  of  poor  goods  as  for  the 
best,  and  while  there  is  a  market  for  good  produce,  poor  stuff  not 
only  does  not  bring  good  prices,  but  reacts  upon  the  superior  article, 
reducing  its  price.  It  is,  therefore,  poor  policy  to  ship  inferior 
goods.  Inspect  and  assort  rigorously,  retaining  all  doubtful  prod- 
uct for  canning,  or  to  be  otherwise  disposed  of.  Better  lose  it 
entirely  than  send  it  to  market  to  undermine  the  good.  Learn  what 
kind  of  package  the  market  you  are  selling  in  prefers.  Provide 
that  package,  and  pack  the  goods  securely  and  honestly.  Be  sure 
the  package  is  full.  Not  only  is  this  more  honest,  but  your  produce 
will  arrive  upon  the  market  in  better  condition  if  this  is  done.  Have 
the  goods  in  each  package  as  near  the  same  size  as  possible,  and  as 
near  the  same  degree  of  ripeness.  Do  not  make  the  error  of  placing 
the  best  on  top.  Remember  that  every  package  is  examined  by  the 
buyer  until  he  learns  whether  you  are  honest  or  not,  and  this  prac- 
tice fools  no  one,  and  only  serves  to  make  the  buyer  wary  of  your 
goods.  Pack  neatly  in  a  neat  clean  package.  Nail  it  up  securely, 
stencil  your  name  and  post  office,  and  the  name  of  the  consignee 
upon  it,  and  ship  as  promptly,  and  by  the  most  direct  route  possible. 
Notify  the  consignee  promptly  of  the  shipment  in  order  that  he 
may  know  it  is  on  the  way,  and  have  a  chance  to  provide  for  its 
reception  and  disposal.  The  shipment  of  perishable  goods  by 
freight  in  refrigerator  cars  is  preferable.  Very  early  in  the  season 
ventilated  cars  may  give  satisfaction.  Except  with  a  few  packages 
of  very  early  vegetables  or  fruits,  express  shipments  will  not,  as  a 
rule,  be  found  profitable.  Not  only  will  the  charges  be  four  or  five 
fold,  but  the  packages  are  handled  so  often,  and  so  roughly,  that 
they  invariably  reach  their  destination  in  poor  condition.  Besides 
this,  there  is  no  assurance  as  to  the  temperature  being  kept  low, 
and  a  low  temperature,  while  in  transit,  is  essential  to  the  arrival  of 
your  produce  upon  the  market  in  good  condition. 

Careful  selection,  packing  and  shipping  cannot  be  too  strongly 
urged.  Upon  the  intelligence  and  care  with  which  this  is  done, 
depends,  largely,  the  success  of  the  shipper.  Remember  that  after 
leaving  your  hands,  and  before  reaching  the  consumer,  these  perish- 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  23 

able  goods  are  subjected  to  their  greatest  ordeal,  and  too  much  care 
cannot  be  given  to  make  this  test  as  light  as  possible.  A  proper 
understanding  of  this  by  the  shipper  would  save  many  a  disap- 
pointment, and  many  a  hard  word  for  the  consignee.  Of  course, 
all  else  being  equal,  it  is  much  safer  and  more  satisfactory  to  sell 
on  the  track.  However,  this  is  not  always  possible,  nor  is  it  always 
advisable  when  possible.  It  would  be  unjust  to  demand  or  to  expect 
the  buyer  to  pay  you  the  net  price  of  the  big  city  market  for  your 
goods  at  your  home  town. 

In  buying  from  you  there,  he  takes  the  risk  of  transportation, 
of  the  fluctuations  of  the  market,  and  pays  all  selling  charges,  and  it 
is  but  just  and  right  that  he  should  be  allowed  a  fair  margin  for 
these  risks.  On  the  other  hand,  human  nature  is  the  same  the 
world  over,  and  unless  you  watch  Mr.  Buyer  closely,  you  will  find 
he  shows  a  decided  tendency  to  make  this  margin  unnecessarily 
large.  To  sell  on  track,  intelligently  and  advantageously,  therefore, 
you  must  make  a  close  study  of  the  market  conditions.  It  is  not 
enough  to  know  what  stuff  sold  for  last  week.  You  should  know 
what  it  sold  for  the  day  before,  and  what  the  conditions  of  supply 
and  demand  are.  Is  the  crop  a  large  one?  Is  the  movement  to 
your  market  large  or  light?  Is  the  demand  brisk  or  dull?  Is 
your  railroad  service  efficient?  All  these  questions  should  be  con- 
sidered, and  unless  the  farmer  recognizes  that  the  disposal  of  his 
crop  is  a  business,  and  adopts  business  methods,  he  is  sure  to  come 
to  grief.  In  order  to  do  this,  it  is  necessary  to  have  some  reliable 
source  of  information.  For  this  purpose,  select  some  reliable  com- 
mission house,  and  if  necessary,  pay  them  to  furnish  you  daily 
market  reports  by  wire  during  the  snipping  season.  Do  not  begrudge 
the  little  money  these  telegrams  will  cost,  for  they  will  frequently 
save  you  many  a  dollar,  even  on  one  carload. — (La.  St.  U.  &  A. 
&  M.  Col.  81.) 

CANNING  VEGETABLES  IN   THE  HOME. 

One  of  the  many  problems  that  confront  the  American  house- 
wife is  the  supply  of  vegetables  for  her  table  during  the  winter 
months.  "What  can  I  have  for  dinner  today?"  is  a  question  often 
heard.  Since  the  advent  of  the  modern  greenhouse  and  the  forcing 
of  vegetables  under  glass,  fresh  vegetables  can  usually  be  found  at 
any  time  in  the  markets  of  the  large  cities.  But  the  cost  of  forcing 
vegetables  or  growing  them  out  of  season  is  and  will  continue  to  be 
very  great.  This  makes  the  price  so  high  as  almost  to  prohibit  their 
use  by  people  of  moderate  means,  except  as  a  luxury.  A  healthful 
diet,  however,  must  include  vegetables,  and  therefore  the  housewife 
turns  to  canned  goods  as  the  only  alternative.  These  are  sometimes 
poor  substitutes  for  the  fresh  article,  especially  the  cheaper  commer- 
cial grades,  which  necessarily  lack  the  delicate  flavor  of  the  fresh 
vegetable.  There  is  practically  no  danger,  however,  from  contami- 
nation with  tin  or  other  metals  providing  the  containers  are  made 
of  proper  materials  and  handled  carefully.  In  some  cases  the  proper 
care  is  not  taken  in  packing  vegetables  for  market.  The  decayed  and 
refuse  portions  are  not  so  carefully  removed  as  they  should  be  and 


24  TEE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

the  requisite  degree  of  cleanliness  is  not  observed  in  their  packing. 
Happily,  however,  such  carelessness  is  not  general. 

Every  housewife  may  run  a  miniature  canning  factory  in  her 
own  kitchen,  and  on  the  farm  this  is  especially  economical  and 
desirable,  the  economy  being  less  pronounced  in  the  case  of  city 
dwellers,  who  must  buy  their  fruits  and  vegetables.  Enough  vege- 
tables annually  go  to  waste  from  the  average  farm  garden  to  supply 
the  table  during  the  entire  winter.  But  usually  the  farmer's  wife 
cans  her  tomatoes,  preserves  her  fruits,  and  leaves  her  most  whole- 
some and  nutritious  vegetables  to  decay  in  the  field,  under  the 
impression  that  it  is  impossible  to  keep  them.  This  is  a  great  mis- 
take. It  is  just  as  easy  to  keep  corn  or  string  beans  as  it  is  to  keep 
tomatoes,  if  you  know  how. 

Sterilization. — The  great  secret  of  canning  or  preserving  lies 
in  complete  sterilization.  The  air  we  breathe,  the  water  we  drink, 
all  fruits  and  vegetables,  are  teeming  with  minute  forms  of  life  which 
we  call  bacteria,  or  molds,  or  germs.  These  germs  are  practically 
the  sole  cause  of  decomposition  or  rotting.  The  exclusion  of  air 
from  canned  articles,  which  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  so  impor- 
tant, is  unnecessary  provided  the  air  is  sterile  or  free  from  germs. 
The  exclusion  of  air  is  necessary  only  because  in  excluding  it  we 
exclude  the  germ.  In  other  words,  air  which  has  been  sterilized 
or  freed  from  germs  by  heat  or  mechanical  means  can  be  passed 
continuously  over  canned  articles  without  affecting  them  in  the 
least.  If  a  glass  bottle  is  filled  with  some  vegetable  which  ordinarily 
spoils  very  rapidly — for  instance,  string  beans — and,  instead  of  a 
cork,  it  is  stoppered  with  a  thick  plug  of  raw  cotton  and  heated 
until  all  germ  life  is  destroyed,  the  beans  will  keep  indefinitely.  The 
air  can  readily  pass  in  and  out  of  the  bottle  through  the  plug  of 
cotton,  while  the  germs  from  the  outside  air  cannot  pass  through, 
but  are  caught  and  held  in  its -meshes.  This  shows  that  the  germs 
and  their  spores  or  seeds  are  the  only  causes  of  spoilage  that  we 
have  to  deal  with  in  canning. 

Germs  which  cause  decay  may  be  divided  into  three  classes — • 
yeasts,  molds  and  bacteria.  All  three  of  these  are  themselves  plants 
of  a  very  low  order,  and  all  attack  other  plants  of  a  higher  order 
in  somewhat  the  same  way.  Every  housewife  is  familiar  with  the 
yeast  plant  and  its  habits.  It  thrives  in  substances  containing  sugar, 
which  it  decomposes  or  breaks  up  into  carbonic  acid  and  alcohol. 
This  fact  is  made  use>  of  in  breadmaking,  as  well  as  in  the  manu- 
facture of  distilled  spirits.  Yeasts  are  easily  killed,  so  they  can  be 
left  out  of  consideration  in  canning  vegetables.  Molds,  like  yeasts, 
thrive  in  mixtures  containing  sugar,  as  well  as  in  acid  vegetables, 
such  as  the  tomato^  where  neither  yeasts  nor  bacteria  readily  grow. 
Although  more  resistant  to  heat  than  yeasts,  they  are  usually  killed 
at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water.  As  a  general  rule,  molds  are 
likely  to  attack  jellies  and  preserves  and  are  not  concerned  with  the 
spoiling  of  canned  vegetables.  The  spoiling  of  vegetables  is  due 
primarily  to  bacteria. 

The  reproduction  of  bacteria  is  brought  about  by  one  of  two 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  25 

processes.  The  germ  either  divides  itself  into  two  parts,  making 
two  bacteria  where  one  existed  before,  or  else  reproduces  itself  by 
means  of  spores.  These  spores  may  be  compared  with  seeds  of  an 
ordinary  plant,  and  they  present  the  chief  difficulty  in  canning  vege- 
tables. While  the  parent  bacteria  may  be  readily  killed  at  the  tempera- 
ture of  boiling  water,  the  seeds  retain  their  vitality  for  a  long  time  even 
at  that  temperature,  and  upon  cooling  will  germinate,  and  the  newly 
formed  bacteria  will  begin  their  destructive  work.  Therefore  it  is 
necessary,  in  order  to  completely  sterilize  a  vegetable,  to  heat  it 
to  the  boiling  point  of  water  and  keep  it  at  that  temperature  for 
about  one  hour,  upon  two  or  three  successive  days,  or  else  keep  it 
at  the  temperature  of  boiling  water  for  a  long  period  of  time — about 
five  hours.  The  process  of  boiling  upon  successive  days  is  the  one 
that  is  always  employed  in  scientific  work  and  is  much  to  be  pre- 
ferred. The  boiling  on  the  first  day  kills  all  the  molds  and  practi- 
cally all  of  the  bacteria,  but  does  not  kill  the  spores  or  seeds. 

As  soon  as  the  jar  cools  these  seeds  germinate  and  a  fresh  crop 
of  bacteria  begin  work  upon  the  vegetables.  The  boiling  upon  the 
second  day  kills  this  crop  of  bacteria  before  they  have  had  time  to 
develop  spores.  The  boiling  upon  the  third  day  is  not  always  nec- 
essary, but  is  advisable  in  order  to  be  sure  that  the  sterilization  is 
complete.  Among  scientists  this  is  called  fractional  sterilization, 
and  this  principle  constitutes  the  whole  secret  of  canning.  If  the 
housewife  will  only  bear  this  in  mind  she  will  be  able  with  a  little 
ingenuity  to  can  any  meat,  fruit,  or  vegetable. 

Exclusion  of  the  Air. — Even  after  sterilization  is  complete  the 
work  is  not  yet  done.  The  spores  of  bacteria  are  so  light  that  they 
float  about  in  the  air  and  settle  upon  almost  everything.  The  air 
is  alive  with  them.  A  bubble  of  air  no  larger  than  a  pea  riiay  con- 
tain hundreds  of  them.  Therefore  it  is  necessary  after  sterilizing 
a  jar  of  vegetables  to  exclude  carefully  all  outside  air.  If  one  bac- 
terium or  one  of  its  spores  should  get  in  and  find  a  resting  place,  in 
the  course  of  a  few  days  the  contents  of  the  jar  would  spoil.  This 
is  why  the  exclusion  of  air  is  an  important  factor,  not  because  the  air 
itself  does  any  damage  but  because  of  the  ever-present  bacteria. 

All  of  this  may  seem  new  fashioned  and  unnecessary  to  some 
housekeepers.  Persons  have  quite  often  heard  it  said:  "My  grand- 
mother never  did  this,  and  she  was  the  most  successful  woman  at 
canning  that  I  ever  knew."  Possibly  so,  but  it  must  be  remembered 
that  grandmother  made  her  preserves—delicious  they  were,  too — 
and  canned  her  tomatoes,  but  did  not  attempt  to  keep  the  most 
nutritious  and  most  delicately  flavored  vegetables,  such  as  lima 
beans,  string  beans,  okra,  asparagus,  or  even  corn. 

So-Called  "Preserving  Powders." — There  are  a  great  many 
brands  of  so-called  "preserving  powders"  on  the  market.  These  are 
sold  not  only  under  advertised  trade  names  but  by  druggists  and 
peddlers  everywhere.  In  the  directions  for  use  the  housewife  is  told 
to  fill  the  jar  with  the  fruit  or  vegetable  to  be  canned,  to  cover  with 
water,  and  to  add  a  teaspoonful  of  the  powder.  It  is  true  that  these 
powders  may  prevent  the  decay  of  the  fruit  or  vegetable,  but  they 


26  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

also  encourage  uncleanly,  careless  work,  and  in  the  hands  of  inex- 
perienced persons  may  be  dangerous.  While  with  small  doses  the 
influence  may  not  be  apparent  in  an  adult  in  normal  health,  with  a 
child  or  an  invalid  the  effect  may  be  of  a  serious  nature.  The 
proper  way  to  sterilize  is  by  means  of  heat,  and  as  this  can  be  done 
very  easily  and  cheaply  the  use  of  chemical  preservatives  in  canning 
is  not  to  be  recommended. 

Kinds  of  Jars. — The  first  requisite  for  successful  canning  is  a 
good  jar.  Glass  is  the  most  satisfactory.  Tin  is  more  or  less 
soluble  in  the  juices  of  fruits  and  vegetables.  Even  the  most  im- 
proved styles  of  tin  cans  which  are  lacquered  on  the  inside  to  pre- 
vent the  juice  from  coming  in  contact  with  the  tin  are  open  to  this 
objection.  While  the  amount  of  tin  dissolved  under  these  condi- 
tions is  very  small,  enough  does  come  through  the  lacquer  and  into 
the  contents  of  the  can  to  be  detected  in  an  ordinary  analysis. 
While  the  small  amount  of  tin  may  not  be  injurious,  it  gives  an  un- 
desirable color  to  many  canned  articles.  Tin  cans  can  not  readily 
be  used  a  second  time,  while  glass  with  proper  care  will  last  in- 
definitely. 

There  are  a  great  many  kinds  of  glass  jars  on  the  market,  many 
of  them  possessing  certain  distinct  points  of  advantage.  The  ordi- 
nary screw-top  jar  is  the  one  in  most  common  use.  Although  cheap 
in  price,  these  jars  are  the  most  expensive  in  the  long  run.  The  tops 
last  only  a  few  years  and,  being  cheaply  made,  the  breakage  ia 
usually  greater  than  that  of  a  better  grade  of  jar.  The  tops  also 
furnish  an  excellent  hiding  place  for  germs,  which  makes  steriliza- 
tion very  difficult. 

The  most  satisfactory  jar  is  the  one  which  has  a  rubber  ring 
and  glass  top,  held  in  place  by  a  simple  wire  spring.  There  are 
several  brands  of  these  jars  on  the  market,  so  no  difficulty  should  be 
experienced  in  obtaining  them.  Vegetables  often  spoil  after  being 
sterilized  because  of  defective  rubbers.  It  is  poor  economy  to  buy: 
cheap  rubbers  or  to  use  them  a  second  time.  As  a  general  rule  black 
rubbers  are  more  durable  than  white  ones. 

Buy  a  good  grade  of  jar.  The  best  quality  usually  retails  at 
from  a  dollar  to  a  dollar  and  twenty-five  cents  a  dozen.  The  initial 
expense  may  be,  therefore,  somewhat  high,  but  with  proper  care  they 
should  last  many  years.  The  annual  breakage  should  be  less  than 
3  per  cent  on  the  average.  In  selecting  a  jar  always  give  preference 
to  those  havings  wide  mouths.  In  canning  whole  fruit  or  vegetables 
and  in  cleaning  the  jars  the  wide  mouth  will  be  found  to  be  decid- 
edly preferable. 

Containers  for  Sterilizing. — A  tin  clothes  boiler  with  a  false 
bottom  made  of  wire  netting  cut  to  fit  may  fce  used  as  a  container 
for  sterilizing.  The  netting  is  made  of  medium-sized  galvanized 
wire  (No.  16)  with  one-half  inch  mesh.  A  false  bottom  is  abso- 
lutely necessary,  as  the  jars  will  break  if  set  flat  upon  the^bottom  of 
the  boiler.  Narrow  strips  of  wood,  straw,  or  almost  anything  of  this 
nature  may  be  used  for  the  purpose,  but  the  wire  gauze  is  clean  and 
convenient. 


FIELD  'AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  27 

There  are  several  varieties  of  patent  steamers  or  steam  cookers 
in  common  use.  These  have  either  one  or  two  doors  and  hold  a 
dozen  or  more  quart  jars.  They  are  ideal  for  canning,  but  they  are 
somewhat  expensive  and  can  be  easily  dispensed  with.  A  common 
ham  boiler  or  clothes  boiler  with  a  tight-fitting  cover  will  answer 
every  purpose. — (F.  B.  359.) 

Selection  and  Preparation  of  Vegetables. — The  first  step  in  suc- 
cessful canning  is  the  selection  and  preparation  of  the  vegetables. 
Never  attempt  to  can  any  vegetable  that  has  matured  and  com- 
menced to  harden  or  one  that  has  begun  to  decay.  As  a  general  rule, 
young  vegetables  are  superior  in  flavor  and  texture  to  the  more  ma- 
ture ones.  This  is  especially  true  of  string  beans,  okra,  and  aspar- 
agus. Vegetables  are  better  if  gathered  in  the  early  morning  while 
the  dew  is  still  on  them.  If  it  is  impossible  to  can  them  immediately, 
do  not  allow  them  to  wither,  but  put  them  in  cold  water,  or  in  a  cold, 
damp  place  and  keep  them  crisp  until  you  are  ready  for  them.  Do 
your  canning  in  a  well-swept  and  well-dusted  room.  This  will  tend 
to  reduce  the  number  of  spores  floating  about  and  lessen  the  chances 
of  inoculation. 

STORING. 

The  assortment  of  vegetables  which  can  be  made  available  for 
winter  use  is  much  larger  than  is  ordinarily  supposed.  No  less  than 
thirty  distinct  kinds  of  vegetables  can  be  preserved  for  winter  use 
by  proper  methods  of  storing,  canning,  and  pickling.  Of  these,  at 
least  twenty  may  be  kept  in  the  fresh  state,  without  canning  or 
pickling.  Besides  the  staple  crop,  potatoes,  the  list  includes  the  root 
crops  (beets,  carrots,  horse-radish,  parsnips,  winter  radish,  rutabaga, 
salsify,  turnips),  kohl-rabi,  cabbage,  celery,  leeks,  chicory,  parsley, 
onions,  dry  beans,  pumpkins,  squashes  and  sweet  potatoes.  The 
vegetables  most  commonly  canned  are  rhubarb,  tomatoes,  corn,  peas 
and  string  beans ;  those  commonly  preserved  by  pickling  are  cauli- 
flower, cucumbers  (both  green  and  ripe),  citron,  green  peppers  and 
green  tomatoes. 

When  vegetables  are  to  be  canned  or  pickled,  it  is  not  usually 
necessary  to  grow  them  especially  for  that  purpose,  except  to  make 
sure  that  a  suitable  variety  is  planted  in  sufficient  quantity.  When 
the  vegetables  have  reached  the  right  stage  of  maturity  and  the 
supply  is  abundant,  part  of  the  crop  is  simply  canned  or  pickled 
without  special  regard  to  the  particular  time  in  the  season  it  may 
be  done.  However,  with  vegetables  to  be  preserved  in  the  fresh  state 
for  winter  use  it  is  essential  that  they  be  planted  at  such  a  time  that 
they  will  reach  the  right  stage  of  development  at  the  proper  season 
for  storing.  This  means  that  in  the  case  of  some  of  the  crops  they 
will  be  planted  considerably  later  than  if  designed  for  summer  use, 
since  the  product  is  of  better  quality  if  not  allowed  to  continue 
growth  after  reaching  the  desired  stage  of  development,  and  this  stage 
should  not  be  reached  before  the  arrival  of  the  storage  season.  Since 
most  ^ vegetables  usually  keep  best  if  put  into  storage  comparatively 
late,  it  should  be  the  aim  of  the  gardener  to  mature  the  vegetables  for 


28  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

winter  use  as  late  in  the  season  as  he  can,  and  yet  have  them  har- 
vested before  they  are  injured  by  cold. 

Of  the  vegetables  stored  for  winter,  some  require  entirely  dif- 
ferent conditions  in  storage  than  do  others,  so  that  attempts  to  store 
all  vegetables  under  the  same  conditions  would  result  only  in  failure. 
In  order  that  the  root  crops  may  be  stored  without  wilting,  rotting 
or  starting  into  growth,  they  must  be  kept  cool,  fairly  moist,  and 
away  from  contact  with  circulating  air.  Cabbage  may  be  success' 
fully  stored  under  the  same  conditions.  Onions  must  be  kept  at  a 
low  temperature,  but  differ  from  the  root  crops  in  that  they  must  be 
in  a  dry  atmosphere  and  have  free  circulation  of  air.  In  a  moist 
atmosphere,  under  high  temperature,  they  would  either  rot  or  sprout. 
Vegetables  that  are  expected  to  continue  growth  while  in  storage, 
such  as  celery,  leeks,  Brussels  sprouts,  chicory  and  parsley,  must  be 
planted  in  dirt  and  the  roots  kept  moist.  Air  should  circulate  freely 
about  the  tops,  and  the  temperature  must  be  low.  On  the  other 
hand,  sweet  potatoes,  pumpkins  and  squashes  demand  a  high  tem- 
perature and  dry  atmosphere,  with  free  circulation  of  air. 

The  conditions  of  storage  favorable  to  the  different  crops  are 
secured  in  various  ways.  Market  gardeners  use  outdoor  pits  or 
specially  constructed  cellars  for  their  root  crops,  cabbage  and  celery. 
Onions  are  commercially  stored  in  slatted  crates  piled  in  tiers  in 
frost-proof  houses  provided  with  means  for  ventilation  so  that  the 
temperature  can  be  maintained  at  slightly  above  freezing.  Sweet 
potatoes  and  squashes  are  also  stored  in  specially  constructed  houses, 
in  which  the  temperature  can  be  controlled;  but  since  a  high  tem- 
perature is  demanded  for  these  crops,  artificial  heat  is  usually  em- 
ployed. Circulation  of  air  about  these  products  in  storage  is  facili- 
tated by  the  use  of  slatted  bins,  and  allowing  ample  space  between 
the  bins  and  the  side  walls  of  the  building. 

For  home  use  the  root  crops  and  cabbage  can  best  be  stored  in 
outdoor  pits  for  late  winter  use,  and  in  the  cellar  for  use  early  in  the 
season.  The  chief  objection  usually  urged  against  storing  root  crops 
in  the  cellar  is  that  they  are  likely  to  wilt.  This  difficulty  can  be 
obviated  by  packing  the  roots  in  boxes  with  alternate  layers  of  earth 
or  sand,  and  placing  the  boxes  in  the  coolest  part  of  the  cellar.  The 
earth  will  absorb  any  odors  in  case  the  vegetables  should  start  to  de- 
cay, and  thus  avoid  endangering  the  health  of  the  family.  Cab- 
bage can  be  stored  in  the  same  way  if  the  roots  and  outer  leaves  are 
removed  and  merely  the  heads  are  packed  in  boxes  or  barrels  of 
earth. 

Cabbage  intended  for  late  winter  use,  however,  will  keep  better 
in  an  outdoor  pit  than  in  a  cellar.  The  same  is  true  of  parsnips, 
salsify,  horse-radish  and  some  of  the  other  root  crops.  Except 
where  the  ground  is  especially  well  drained,  the  pits  are  usually 
made  entirely  above  ground.  For  storing  cabbage  in  this  manner, 
the  plants  are  pulled  with  the  roots  and  leaves  on,  and  placed  up- 
side-down in  regular  order  on  a  level  piece  of  ground.  Usually 
three  plants  are  placed  side  by  side,  with  two  above,  and  this  arrange- 
ment repeated  so  that  the  final  result  is  a  long,  low  pile  of  cabbage 


FIELD  'AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  29 

showing  five  plants  in  a  cross  section.  Earth  is  piled  against  and 
over  this  array  of  cabbage  until  the  plants,  including  the  roots,  are 
entirely  covered.  In  a  severe  climate,  a  layer  of  manure  may  be 
added  when  cold  weather  arrives. 

For  storing  parsnips,  salsify  and  horse-radish,  which  are  un- 
injured by  freezing,  the  roots  may  be  placed  in  a  pile  on  the  ground 
and  covered  with  about  six  inches  of  earth.  The  advantage  of  stor- 
ing in  this  manner,  instead  of  allowing  the  roots  to  remain  where 
they  grew,  is  the  saving  in  time  of  digging,  when  a  few  roots  are 
wanted  during  the  winter.  It  is  much  easier  to  open  the  pit  when 
the  ground  is  frozen  than  to  dig  roots  from  the  garden  with  a  pick. 
In  fact,  the  difficulty  of  digging  almost  precludes  the  use  of  these 
crops  in  midwinter  unless  they  are  more  accessible  than  in  the  place 
where  they  grew. 

Beets,  carrots,  turnips,  rutabagas,  kohl-rabi  and  Irish  potatoes 
can  also  be  stored  in  outdoor  pits,  but  they  must  be  coverf  'T  suffici- 
ently to  prevent  freezing.  One  of  the  best  ways  of  hanciing  these 
crops  is  to  place  them  in  a  conical  pile  and  cover  first  with  six  or  eight 
inches  of  hay  or  straw,  then  with  earth  to  a  similar  depth.  If  ex- 
tremely cold  weather  is  expected,  a  layer  of  manure  should  be  placed 
outside  of  the  earth.  In  getting  vegetables  from  pits  of  this  kind 
in  midwinter,  the  manure  is  removed  slightly  from  one  side  of  the 
pit  near  the  bottom  and  a  hole  about  a  foot  square  chopped  through 
the  frozen  earth  with  an  old  ax.  Sufficient  hay  is  then  pulled  out  by 
means  of  an  iron  hook,  to  enable  a  person  to  thrust  his  arm  into  the 
opening  and  reach  the  vegetables. — (U.  111.  154.) 

EAKLY  PLANTS  IN  HOTBEDS. 

The  most  common  method  of  starting  early  plants  in  the  North 
is  by  means  of  a  hotbed.  The  hotbed  consists  of  an  inclosure 
covered  with  sash  and  supplied  with  some  form  of  heat,  usually  fer- 
menting stable  manure,  to  keep  the  plants  warm  and  in  a  growing 
condition.  As  a  rule,  the  hotbed  should  not  be  placed  within  the 
garden  inclosure,  but  near  some  frequently  used  path  or  building 
where  it  can  receive  attention  without  interfering  with  other  work. 
The  hotbed  should  always  face  to  the  south,  and  the  south  side  of 
either  a  dwelling,  barn,  tight  board  fence,  hedge,  or  anything  afford- 
ing a  similar  protection,  will  furnish  a  good  location.  The  hotbed 
should  be  started  in  February  or  early  in  March,  in  order  that  such 
plants  as  the  tomato  and  early  cabbage  may  be  well  grown  in  time 
to  plant  in  the  open  ground.  There  are  two  or  three  forms  of  hot- 
beds that  are  worthy  of  use. 

A  temporary  hotbed,  such  as  would  ordinarily  be  employed  on 
the  farm,  is  easily  constructed  by  the  use  of  manure  from  the  horse 
stable  as  a  means  of  furnishing  the  heat.  Select  a  well-drained  loca- 
tion, where  the  bed  will  be  sheltered,  shake  put  the  manure  into  a 
broad,  flat  heap,  and  thoroughly  compact  it  by  tramping.  The 
manure  heap  should  be  8  or  9  feet  wide,  18  to  24  inches  deep  when 
compacted,  and  of  any  desired  length,  according  to  the  number  of 
sash  to  be  employed.  The  manure  for  hotbed  purposes  should  con- 
tain sufficient  litter,  such  as  leaves  or  straw,  to  prevent  its  packing 


30  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

8°ggy>  and  should  spring  slightly  when  trodden  upon.  After  the 
manure  has  been  properly  tramped  and  leveled,  the  frames  to  sup- 
port the  sash  are  placed  in  position  facing  toward  the  south.  These 
frames  are  generally  made  to  carry  4  standard  hotbed  sash,  and  the 
front  board  should  be  4  to  6  inches  lower  than  the  back,  in  order  that 
water  will  drain  from  the  glass.  Three  to  five  inches  of  good  garden 
loam  or  specially  prepared  soil  is  spread  evenly  over  the  area  inclosed 
by  the  frame,  the  sash  put  on,  and  the  bed  allowed  to  heat.  At  first 
the  temperature  of  the  bed  will  run  quite  high,  but  no  seeds  should 
be  planted  until  the  soil  temperature  falls  to  80°  F.,  which  will  be  in 
about  three  days.  In  most  farmhouses  enough  heat  is  wasted 
throughout  the  winter  to  sustain  a  small  hothouse  to  say  nothing  of 
a  hotbed. 

Hotbeds  haying  more  or  less  permanence  may  be  so  constructed 
as  to  be  heated  either  with  fermenting  manure,  a  stove,  a  brick  flue, 
or  by  means  of  radiating  pipes  supplied  with  steam  or  hot  water  from 
a  dwelling  or  other  heating  plant.  For  a  permanent  bed  in  which 
fermenting  manure  is  to  supply  the  heat,  a  pit  24  to  30  inches  in 
depth  should  be  provided.  The  sides  and  ends  of  the  pit  may  be 
supported  by  brick  walls  or  by  a  lining  of  2-inch  plank  held  in  place 
by  stakes. 

Standard  hotbed  sash  are  3  by  6  feet  in  size,  and  are  usually 
constructed  of  white  pine  or  cypress.  As  a  rule,  hotbed  sash  can  be 
purchased  cheaper  than  they  can  be  made  locally,  and  are  on  sale 
by  seedsmen  and  dealers  in  garden  supplies.  In  the  colder  parts  of 
the  country,  in  addition  to  glazed  sash  either  board  shutters,  straw 
mats,  burlap,  or  old  carpet  will  be  required  as  a  covering  during  cold 
nights.  It  is  also  desirable  to  have  a  supply  of  straw  or  loose  ma- 
nure on  hand  to  throw  over  the  bed  in  case  of  extremely  cold 
weather. 

During  bright  days  the  hotbed  will  heat  very  quickly  from  the 
sunshine  on  the  glass  and  it  will  be  necessary  to  ventilate  during  the 
early  morning  by  slightly  raising  the  sash  on  the  opposite  side  from 
the  wind.  Care  should  be  taken  in  ventilating  to  protect  the  plants 
from  a  draft  of  cold  air.  Toward  evening  the  sash  should  be  closed 
in  order  that  the  bed  may  become  sufficiently  warm  before  nightfall. 
Hotbeds  should  be  watered  on  bright  days  and  in  the  morning  only. 
Watering  in  the  evening  or  on  cloudy  days  will  have  a  tendency  to 
chill  the  bed  and  increase  the  danger  from  freezing.  After  water- 
ing, the  bed  should  be  well  ventilated  to  dry  the  foliage  of  the  plants 
and  the  surface  of  the  soil  and  prevent  the  plants  being  lost  by 
damping-off  fungus  or  mildew. 

HANDLING  OF  PLANTS. 

Successful  transplanting  of  indoor-grown  plants  to  the  garden 
or  field  depends  largely  upon  their  proper  treatment  during  the  two 
weeks  preceding  the  time  of  their  removal.  Spindling  and  tender 
plants  will  not  withstand  the  exposure  of  the  open  ground  so  well  as 
sturdy,  well-grown  plants,  such  as  may  be  secured  by  proper  han- 
dling. 

Plants  grown  in  a  house,,  hotbed,  or  cold  frame  will  require  to 


FIELD  rAND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  31 

be  hardened  off  before  planting  in  the  garden.  By  the  process  of 
hardening  off,_the  plants  are  gradually  acclimated  to  the  effects  of 
the  sun  and  wind  so  that  they  will  stand  transplanting  to  the  open 
ground.  Hardening  off  is  usually  accomplished  by  ventilating 
freely  and  by  reducing  the  amount  of  water  applied  to  the  plant 
bed.  The  plant  bed  should  not  become  so  dry  that  the  plants  will 
wilt  or  bo  seriously  checked  in  their  growth.  After  a  few  days  it 
will  be  possible  to  leave  the  plants  uncovered  during  the  entire  day 
and  on  mild  nights.  By  the  time  the  plants  are  required  for  setting 
in  the  garden  they  should  be  thoroughly  acclimated  to  outdoor  con- 
ditions and  can  be  transplanted  with  but  few  losses. — (F.  B.  255; 
U.  Mo.  Col.  Ag.  &  Mech.  Arts  33;  N.  La.  81;  Kan.  St.  Ag.  Col  70; 
S.  Dak.  47;  U.  Idaho  17.) 


Intensive  gardening  under  sash  or  cloth  covers  has  become  one 
of  the  most  popular  and,  in  certain  localities  where  the  conditions 
are  suitable,  one  of  the  most  profitable  lines  of  outdoor  work.  The 
trucker  and  the  market  gardener  of  the  present  day  have  been  com- 

Eelled  by  keen  competition  and  a  constantly  increasing  demand  for 
igh-grade  products  out  of  season  to  provide  special  facilities  for 
increasing  and  improving  the  product,  as  well  as  to  take  advantage 
of  every  favorable  natural  condition.  Many  localities  are  especially 
favored  with  an  abundance  of  sunshine  at  all  seasons  of  the  year,  and 
at  the  same  time  their  climate,  due  to  the  influence  of  large  streams 
or  near-by  bodies  of  water,  is  mild  and  free  from  extremes  of  tempera- 
ture. "In  such  localities  it  would  be  possible  to  grow  lettuce,  radishes, 
and  similar  crops  during  the  entire  winter  without  protection  were 
it  not  for  a  few  cold  days  and  nights.  A  very  slight  covering  or  the 
application  of  a  small  amount  of  heat  will,  as  a  rule,  carry  the  plants 
through  in  good  condition.  This  industry  may  readily  be  combined 
with  regular  truck  farming,  as  it  furnishes  remunerative  employ- 
ment during  the  winter  months.  A  comparatively  small  area  is  nec- 
essary for  the  frames,  but  several  times  that  acreage  of  land  should 
be  available,  so  that  the  site  of  the  frames  may  be  changed  every  few 
years  to  safeguard  against  diseases  and  insect  injuries. 

Cloth-Covered  Frames.  —  The  type  of  frame  or  bed  varies  with 
the  different  localities  and  is  ordinarily  no  more  elaborate  or  expen- 
sive than  is  necessary  to  protect  the  crops.  In  North  Carolina  and 


South  Carolina  the  type  of  frame  generally  used  is  that  haying  for 
the  sides  two  lines  of  12-inch  boards  set  on  edge  and  held  in  place 
by  means  of  stakes  driven  into  the  ground.  The  covering  of  cheap 
unbleached  muslin  is  supported  on  strips  of  wood  1  inch  thick  and 
2^2  or  3  inches  wide,  which  are  raised  in  the  center  by  being  carried 
over  the  top  of  a  stake  ;  the  ends  are  held  down  by  nailing  to  the 
sides  of  the  bed.  Most  of  these  frames  are  temporary  and  are  taken 
apart  and  stored  during  the  summer  months.  Before  placing  the 
frames  in  position  in  the  autumn  the  soil  is  plowed,  thoroughly 
fitted,  and  given  a  liberal  dressing  of  well-rotted  stable  manure  and 
commercial  fertilizers.  The  placing  of  the  boards  will  cause  some 
trampling  of  the  bed,  and  before  putting  in  the  ends  and  nailing  on 


32  TEE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN, 

the  rafters  or  strips  to  support  the  cloth  it  is  desirable  to  loosen  the 
eoil  again  by  means  of  a  harrow  or  cultivator.  The  stakes  for  sup- 
porting the  cross  strips  or  rafters  are  then  driven  through  the  center 
and  the  strips  nailed  in  place  at  intervals  of  4  feet.  The  ends  are 
inclosed  by  means  of  12-inch  boards,  and  the  bed  is  then  ready  for 
the  cloth  cover.  The  cloth  is  first  stitched,  with  the  strips  running 
lengthwise  of  the  bed,  into  one  great  sheet  large  enough  to  cover  the 
entire  bed.  This  sheet  is  fastened  on  the  north  side  of  the  frame 
by  nailing  over  it  plastering  laths  or  similar  strips  of  wood.  The 
cloth  should  not  be  fastened  to  the  top  edge  of  the  board  but  on  the 
side,  1  or  2  inches  below  the  top.  For  fastening  the  sheet  on  the 
south  side  of  the  frame  short  loops  of  string  or  cloth  are  attached  to 
its  edge  and  these  are  looped  over  nails  driven  into  the  side  of  the 
bed. 

Sash-Covered  Frames. — In  the  tidewater  region  of  Virginia  the 
frames  are  covered  with  hotbed  sash.  The  climate  of  Norfolk  is  a 
little  too  severe  for  the  use  of  cloth  except  for  early  autumn  and 
spring  crops.  A  number  of  growers  in  the  vicinity  of  Norfolk 
handle  sash-covered  frames  occupying  as  much  as  3,  4,  or  5  acres 
each  season.  For  the  sides  and  ends  of  these  frames  the  same  class 
of  cheap  lumber  as  for  the  cloth-covered  frames  is  used. 

Heated  Frames. — Farther  north,  near  Chicago,  St.  Louis,  Cleve- 
land, Detroit,  Baltimore,  Philadelphia,  Cincinnati,  New  York,  and 
Boston,  sash-covered  frames  are  extensively  used  for  growing  early 
vegetables.  This  work  is  practically  the  same  as  that  found  at  Norfolk, 
except  that  the  frames  are  constructed  over  an  excavation  which  is 
filled  with  fermenting  manure  to  provide  heat.  Where  manure- 
heated  beds  are  extensively  used  for  growing  early  vegetables  a  long, 
shallow  pit  is  opened,  the  manure  is  trodden  in,  and  12-inch  boards 
are  fastened  to  stakes  to  form  the  sides.  The  board  on  the  north 
side  is  raised  a  little  higher  than  the  one  on  the  south  side  in  order 
to  form  a  slope  for  the  glass.  A  few  strips  are  nailed  across  the  bed 
to  prevent  the  sides  from  coming  in  by  the  pressure  of  the  manure 
or  soil  that  is  banked  on  the  outside,  and  the  sash  simply  rest  on  the 
sides  without  any  guide  or  supporting  strips  between  them.  Straw 
mats  and  board  shutters  are  employed  as  a  protection  for  the  sash 
during  cold  weather. 

Temperature  of  Frames. — The  temperature  at  which  the  air  of 
the  beds  should  be  carried  will  depend  entirely  upon  the  crop  being 
grown.  Thermometers  should  be  placed  at  intervals  in  the  beds,  as 
it  is  not  safe  to  judge  the  temperature  by  personal  sensation.  If 
lettuce,  parsley,  or  radishes  are  growing  in  the  beds,  the  temperature 
should  not  go  above  70°  F.  before  ventilation  is  given ;  on  the  other 
hand,  if  the  frames  are  filled  with  cucumbers,  eggplant,  or  peppers, 
the  temperature  may  run  8  or  10  degrees  higher.  It  should  be 
borne  in  mind  that  any  covering,  whether  cloth  or  sash,  will  exclude 
a  part  of  the  light,  and  every  precaution  is  necessary  to  prevent  the 
plants  becoming  "drawn."  The  safest  plan  is  to  keep  the  tempera- 
ture a  trifle  low  and  thus  retain  the  plants  in  a  strong,  thrifty  condi- 
tion. Where  tender  plants  are  being  grown  under  cloth  there  is 


FIELD  "AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  33j 

greater  danger  of  injury  from  keeping  them  covered  too  tightly  than 
from  exposure  to  moderate  cold. 

VENTILATION. 

Open-Air. — In  the  care  of  cloth-covered  frames  the  covers  are 
left  off  during  bright  weather  and  the  plants  subjected  to  open-air 
conditions.  When  there  is  danger  of  cold  the  covers  are  put  on  at 
night,  and  during  unfavorable  weather  they  are  frequently  left  on 
during  the  day.  While  the  cloth  covers  conserve  the  heat,  they  at 
the  same  time  exclude  the  sunlight,  and  if  they  are  kept  on  too  great 
a  portion  of  the  time  the  crops  will  become  drawn  and  spindling. 
With  sash-covered  frames  the  matter  of  ventilation  is  of  prime  im- 
portance. The  glass  admits  and  holds  the  heat  of  the  sun's  ra^ys, 
and  during  bright  weather  it  is  necessary  to  open  the  frames  quite 
early  in  the  morning.  Ventilation  is  accomplished  by  propping  up 
one  end  or  one  side  of  the  sash  on  a  notched  stick.  The  rule  to  be 
followed  is  to  ventilate  on  the  side  away  from  the  wind,  so  that  the 
wind  will  blow  over  the  opening  and  not  into  the  bed, 

Protection  of  Frames. — The  area  occupied  by  the  frames  is 
often  surrounded  by  a  high  board  fence  or  a  hedge  of  evergreens 
to  break  the  force  of  the  wind.  If  a  large  area  is  devoted  to  frames 
it  is  sometimes  subdivided  by  numerous  cross  fences  to  break  up  air 
currents  and  lessen  the  force  of  storms.  Where  no  heat  is  applied  to 
the  frames  the  control  over  temperature  will  not  be  great  except 
in  the  prevention  of  too  high  temperature  by  means  of  ventilation 
during  bright  weather.  In  many  instances  straw  and  burlap  mats 
are  kept  ready  at  hand  for  throwing  over  sash-covered  frames 
to  prevent  loss  from  freezing,  but  this  would  not  be  practicable 
on  a  large  scale.  Sometimes  the  glass  is  covered  by  shoveling 
one-half  or  three-fourths  of  an  inch  of  soil  over  it,  but  this  involves 
considerable  labor  and  frequently  results  in  the  breakage  of  a  great 
deal  of  glass.  It  is  possible  to  ward  off  frost  by  the  use  of  a  number  of 
orchard  heaters  in  the  frame  yard.  These  heaters  burn  kerosene 
or  crude  oil  and  give  off  both  heat  and  a  smudge  which  will  prevent 
injury  from  a  reasonable  degree  of  cold. 

Crops  Grown  in  Frames. — The  crops  most  commonly  grown 
in  frames  are  lettuce,  radishes,  cucumbers,  garden  beets,  parsley, 
eggplant,  peppers,  and  snap  beans.  The  crops  grown  in  the  sash- 
covered  frames  do  not  differ  materially  from  those  grown  under 
cloth.  In  the  spring,  however,  many  growers  devote  their  beds 
almost  entirely  to  cucumbers  and  eggplant  instead  of  to  lettuce  and 
radishes.  To  the  southward  the  cloth  covers  are  sufficient  to  protect 
the  more  hardy  crops  throughout  the  winter.  To  the  northward  the 
hardy  crops  may  be  grown  under  sash  in  midwinter,  and  those 
requiring  more  heat  are  grown  in  the  spring. 

Marketing  Crops  Grown  in  Frames. — -Crops  grown  in  frames 
are  usually  superior  in  quality  and  appearance  to  those  grown  in 
the  open  and  should  be  given  more  care  in  handling  and  marketing. 
The  cost  of  production  is  somewhat  higher  than  for  outdoor  crops, 
and  it  is  essential  that  they  be  put  up  in  neat  packages  in  order  to 
bring  the  highest  market  price.  The  more  successful  growers  give 


34  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

the  work  of  gathering,  grading,  and  packing  the  crop  their  closest 
personal  attention  and  use  only  clean,  attractive  packages  for  han- 
dling and  shipping. 

The  packages  employed  for  handling  the  frame  products  are 
generally  the  same  as  those  used  for  marketing  outdoor  vegetables, 
of  the  same  kinds.  In  a  few  instances  a  distinctive  package  has  been 
employed.  The  use  of  special  shipping  packages  that  would  give  the 
frame-grown  produce  special  recognition  on  the  markets  would 
be  a  decided  advantage  to  the  grower. — (F.  B.  460.) 

SOIL  AND   FERTILIZERS. 

The  greater  portion  of  the  work  with  frames  is  conducted  on 
light  or  sandy  loam  soils  which  are  naturally  well  drained  and 
adapted  to  intensive  trucking.  The  original  soil  is  usually  em- 
ployed, but  when  necessary  rich  soil  is  hauled  and  placed  in  the 
beds.  The  first  essential  is  good  drainage,  and  if  the  land  is  not 
naturally  well  drained  it  should  be  tiled  or  provided  with  numerous 
open  ditches  to  carry  off  the  water.  The  surface  of  the  soil  should 
be  graded  and  all  depressions  filled  in  and  leveled.  For  best  results 
the  land  should  be  subjected  to  two  or  three  years  of  preparation 
by  manuring  and  planting  to  leguminous  crops. 

The  presence  of  plenty  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil  is  very 
important,  especially  where  large  quantities  of  commercial  fertilizers 
are  to  be  used.  This  organic  matter  may  be  added  in  the  form  of 
stable  manure,  but  more  satisfactory  results  will  be  obtained  where 
leguminous  crops  are  included  in  the  preparatory  treatment.  For 
green  manure  nothing  is  better  than  cowpeas  as  a  summer  crop  and 
crimson  clover-  as  a  winter  crop.  The  crimson  clover  should  be 
turned  under  about  the  time  it  comes  into  full  bloom  in  the  spring, 
the  land  planted  to  cowpeas,  and  the  resulting  crop  plowed  under  or 
mowed  for  hay  during  the  month  of  August  in  ample  time  to 

Erepare  the  land  for  frame  work  during  the  autumn.     When 
eavy  crops  of  green  manure  are  turned  under  it  is  essential  that 
lime  be  used  to  improve  the  mechanical  condition  and  to  sweeten  the 
soil ;  a  dressing  of  1,000  pounds  to  the  acre  should  be  sufficient. 

Large  quantities  of  stable  manure  are  used  in  growing  crops 
in  frames,  sometimes  as  much  as  30  to  60  cartloads  to  the  acre. 
The  manure  is  generally  spread  in  a  broad,  flat  pile  to  compost 
before  it  is  applied  to  the  soil  on  which  frames  are  to  be  located. 
Where  manure  is  employed  for  heating  the  beds  it  may  afterwards 
be  mixed  with  the  soil  for  the  growing  of  subsequent  crops.  Poul- 
try and  sheep  manure  is  excellent  fertilizer  for  frame  work,  but  the 
quantity  obtainable  is  very  small.  In  the  application  of  natural 
manures  of  all  kinds  it  is  essential  that  the  manure  should  be  fine ; 
that  it  be  what  is  termed  "short"  manure. 

WATERING   CROPS. 

To  insure  success  in  the  cultivation  of  plants  in  frames  it  is 
necessary  to  provide  some  means  of  applying  water  to  the  soil. 
Occasionally  the  supply  of  water  can  be  obtained  from  the  system 
of  some  city,  but  more  often  it  must  be  pumped  from  a  well  or 
stream  and  stored  for  use  in  an  elevated  tank.  Watering  is  gen- 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  35 

erally  done  during  the  late  afternoon,  but  should  be  completed 
early  enough  to  permit  the  foliage  to  become  reasonably  dry  before 
closing  the  frames  for  the  night.  If  the  plants  are  young  and  very 
tender  it  will  be  important  to  avoid  too  great  a  degree  of  moisture. 
Serious  losses  from  "damping-off"  often  result  from  excessive  mois- 
ture, especially  at  night,  when  evaporation  is  not  so  rapid  as  during 
the  day.  Many  gardeners  make  the  mistake  of  watering  too  often 
and  not  doing  the  work  thoroughly.  Under  ordinary  conditions 
twice  a  week  will  be  often  enough  to  apply  water,  and  in  winter, 
when  evaporation  is  at  its  lowest  point,  once  a  week  will  be  sufficient. 
In  watering  the  sash-covered  frames  it  is  necessary  either  to  remove 
the  sash  or  to  prop  them  up  high  enough  to  permit  working  under 
them.  As  a  rule  the  sash  are  taken  off  early  in  the  morning  of  a 
bright  day,  the  soil  is  stirred,  sometimes  a  little  fertilizer  is  added, 
later  in  the  day  the  bed  is  watered,  and  toward  night  the  sash  are 
replaced. 

ANISE. 

This  is  an  annual.  Leaves  used  as  a  garnish.  The  seeds  are 
the  source  of  Anise  oil.  This  plant  grows  well  and  gives  a  good 
yield  of  seed.  Seeds  should  be  soaked  over  night  in  warm  water  and 
sown  thickly.— (U.  Idaho  10.) 

ARTICHOKE,  GLOBE. 

This  plant  requires  a  deep,  rich  sandy  loam,  with  a  liberal  sup- 
ply of  well-rotted  manure,  is  best  suited  for  growing  artichokes. 
Plant  the  seeds  as  soon  as  the  soil  is  warm  in  the  spring,  and  when 
the  plants  have  formed  three  or  four  leaves  they  may  be  trans- 
planted to  rows  3  feet  apart  and  2  feet  apart  in  the  row.  The  plants 
do  not  produce  until  the  second  season,  and  in  cold  localities  some 
form  of  covering  will  be  necessary  during  the  winter.  This  crop  is 
not  suited  for  cultivation  north  of  the  line  of  zero  temperature. 
After  the  bed  is  once  established  the  plants  may  be  reset  each  year 
by  using  the  side  shoots  from  the  base  of  the  old  plants.  If  not 
reset  the  bed  will  continue  to  produce  for  several  years,  but  the  burs 
will  not  be  so  large  as  from  new  plants.  The  bur,  or  flower  bud, 
is  the  part  used,  and  the  burs  should  be  gathered  before  the  blossom 
part  appears.  If  they  are  removed  and  no  seed  is  allowed  to  form, 
the  plants  will  continue  to  produce  until  the  end  of  the  season. 

ARTICHOKE,  JERUSALEM. 

This  useful  and  productive  plant  will  grow  in  any  good  garden 
soil,  and  should  be  planted  three  to  four  feet  apart  each  way,  with 
three  ^  or  four  small  tubers  in  a  hill.  If  large  tubers  are  used  for 
planting  they  should  be  cut  the  same  as  Irish  potatoes.  Plant  as 
soon  as  the  ground  becomes  warm  in  the  spring  and  cultivate  as  for 
corn.  A  pint  of  tubers  cut  to  eyes  will  plant  about  thirty  hills. 
The  tubers  will  be  ready  for  use  in  October,  but  may  remain  in  the 
ground  and  be  dug  at  "any  time  during  the  winter. — (F.  B.  255; 
U.  Idaho  10.) 

ASPARAGUS. 

This  valuable  plant  was  formerly  a  luxury  on  the  tables  of  the 
rich,  but  is  now  during  the  season  a  vegetable  seen  daily  upon  the 


36  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

tables  of  people  of  moderate  or  even  small  incomes.  It  is  also  fre- 
quently recommended  as  an  article  of  diet  for  the  sick  and  con- 
valescent. To  the  asparagus  grower  there  are  two  methods  by  which 
plants  can  be  secured,  (1)  by  purchasing  or  saving  the  seed  from 
which  to  raise  them,  and  (2)  by  purchasing  the  plants  from  either  a 
seedsman  or  some  grower.  Taking  the  second  method,  as  being  the 
quickest  way  to  start  a  bed  as  well  as  the  most  easily  disposed  of,  it 
is  suggested  that  roots  over  two  years  old  be  rejected,  and  only  one- 
year-old  roots  selected  if  a  sufficient  number  can  be  secured,  as  the 
latter  are  much  better  and  will  in  the  course  of  a  few  years  produce 
more  and  larger  spears  to  the  plant  and  yield  profitable  crops  for  a 
longer  period.  It  is  best  to  deal  with  reliable  firms;  they  will  be 
more  likely  to  supply  plants  of  both  the  kind  and  age  desired. 

Seed. — Only  reliable  seedsmen  should  be  trusted,  or  the  seed 
should  be  procured  from  some  neighbor  who  has  the  desired  variety 
and  has  taken  proper  care  in  producing  and  saving  the  seed,  if  the 
first  plants  to  be  followed.  If  one  already  has  an  asparagus  bed 
of  the  desired  sort,  producing  fine  spears,  and  of  the  proper  age  (8  to 
12  years  old)  for  seed  production,  it  is  always  best  to  save  seed  from 
it  for  new  plantings.  The  growing  of  one's  own  plants  is  preferable, 
both  because  of  the  extra  year  intervening  between  the  determina- 
tion to  plant  and  the  actual  setting  out  of  the  bed,  thereby  permit- 
ting the  soil  of  the  proposed  bed  to  be  put  in  a  better  and  more  friable 
condition,  and  because,  good  seed  having  been  secured  and  proper 
care  given  to  the  young  plants,  a  more  satisfactory  supply  of  the 
young  roots  is  obtained.  That  there  are  objections  to  growing  one's 
own  seed  is  undoubtedly  true,  but  there  are  also  compensating  advan- 
tages, and  if  proper  care  is  exercised  it  will  pay  the  grower  to  raise  his 
own  seed  (from  beds  which  are  satisfactory)  even  if  seed  can  be 
bought  in  the  open  market  for  much  less  than  the  trouble  of  attend- 
ing to  the  home  grown  may  cost.  If,  however,  a  grower  is  unwilling 
or  unable  to  exercise  the  necessary  care  in  the  production  of  seed,  he 
would  do  much  better  not  to  attempt  it,  but  depend  upon  some 
reliable  dealer,  studiously  avoiding  those  whose  claims  to  patronage 
are  based  upon  cheapness  of  stock.  Good  seed  are  worth  good 
money ;  poor  seed  should  not  be  accepted  under  any  conditions. 

Soil. — Asparagus  will  grow  on  most  soils,  and  will  yield  large 
crops  upon  stiff  soils;  but  for  the  purpose  of  the  grower  for  market, 
a  light  sandy  soil  of  fair  fertility  is  much  to  be  preferred,  both  be- 
cause of  the  earliness  with  which  it  produces  marketable  spears  and 
the  ease  with  which  it  " ;  cultivated.  A  soil  on  which  water  stands 
after  rain,  or  under  which  the  standing  subsurface  water  is  near  the 
surface,  into  which  the  roots  are  liable  to  penetrate,  is  to  be  avoided. 
Of  course,  such  a  soil,  if  otherwise  suitable,  can  be  made  fit  by  a 
thorough  system  of  underdrainage,  since  an  occasional  overflow,  or 
even  a  submergence  of  the  beds  for  several  days,  is  not  necessarily 
injurious  if  the  drainage,  either  natural  or  artificial,  is  good.  The 
soil  should  be  free  of  roots,  stones,  or  any  trash  that  will  not  readily 
disintegrate  or  that  will  interfere  with  the  growth  of  the  spears.  A 
rather  stiff  but  naturally  well-drained  soil  which  produces  early  and 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  37 

fine  asparagus,  notwithstanding  the  fact  that  it  is  full  of  large 
gravel,  some  of  the  stones  being  twice  the  size  of  a  man's  fist. 

Shade. — Fruit  or  other  trees  or  high  shrubs  must  not  be  allowed 
in  the  asparagus  bed,  because  of  the  shade  they  throw  over  the  beds 
and  because  their  roots  make  heavy  drafts  upon  the  soil.  Nor 
should  high  trees,  hedges,  hills,  or  buildings  be  so  near  as  to  throw 
a  shadow  upon  the  beds,  because  all  the  sunshine  obtainable  is 
needed  to  bring  the  spears  quickly  to  the  surface.  The  land  should 
be  protected  from  the  north  or  east  (or  from  the  direction  of  the 
prevalent  winds)  and  so  slope  that  the  full  benefit  of  the  sunshine 
will  be  obtained  during  the  whole  day.  Freedom  from  weeds  is  very 
desirable,  even  more  so  than  great  fertility,  for  the  latter  can  be  pro- 
duced by  the  heavy  manuring  which  the  future  cultivation  will  re- 
quire; and  to  the  end  that  weeds  may  be  few,  it  is  well  that  for  a 
year  or  two  previous  to  planting  the  land  should  have  been  occupied 
by  some  hoed  crop,  such  as  potatoes,  beets,  cabbages,  etc. 

Cultivation. — In  the  late  fall  or  early  winter  the  selected  area, 
should  be  a  light  sandy  loam  as  described  above,  needs  to  be  deeply 
plowed,  and  if  the  subsoil  is  not  already  of  an  open  and  porous 
nature,  through  which  surface  water  will  readily  drain  and  the 
roots  easily  penetrate,  a  sub-soil  plow  should  follow,  breaking  the 
soil  to  the  depth  of  at  least  15  inches.  After  harrowing  the  field,  a 
good  compost  of  well-rotted  horse,  cow,  sheep,  or  other  manure 
should  be  spread  broadcast  and  left  to  the  action  of  the  weather  until 
as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  ground  is  in  condition  to  be  worked, 
when  the  manure  should  be  plowed  in,  the  surface  carefully  har* 
rowed,  and  the  soil  put  in  a  light  and  friable  condition. 

As  early  in  the  spring  as  the  condition  of  the  ground  will  permit 
work  to  be  done — when  it  is  dry  enough  to  bear  plowing  and  the 
soil  will  break  up  fine — rows  should  be  marked  off  4  to  6  feet  apart 
and  opened  up  with  a  large  plow,  going  a  sufficient  number  of  times 
to  make  a  furrow  from  8  to  12  inches  deep.  Loose  soil  that  the  plow 
does  not  throw  up  should  be  taken  up  with  a  shovel  or  wide-bladed 
hoe.  It  is  in  these  furrows  that  the  crowns  are  to  be  set,  the  dis- 
tance to  be  left  between  plants  varying,  according  to  the  opinion  of 
the  grower,  from  18  inches  to  5  feet. 

Planting. — Rows  should  be  run  north  and  south,  so  that  the  full 
benefit  of  the  sunshine  will  be  secured.  If  the  rows  run  east  and  west, 
they  will  be  shaded  by  the  ridges  in  early  spring,  when  the  sun  is  low 
in  the  south,  and  later  in  the  season  they  will  be  completely  shaded  on 
one  side  by  the  tall  foliage.  This  delays  sprouting  in  the  spring,  and 
prevents  the  best  development  of  the  plants  at  all  times.  Of  course, 
any  conditions,  such  as  the  slope  of  the  land,  etc.,  which  make  it 
inadvisable  to  run  the  rows  north  and  south  must  be  considered,  but 
southeast  to  northwest  or  northeast  to  southwest  is  better  than 
due  east  or  west,  or,  in  short,  the  natural  conditions  permitting, 
the  course  should  be  as  far  from  east  and  west  as  possible.  This  is 
especially  important  to  those  who  ridge  the  rows  to  produce  white 
asparagus.  Early  in  the  spring  of  each  year,  after  the  plants  are  old 
enough  to  cut,  there  must  IDC  a  ridge  made  over  the  rows  to  blanch  the 


38  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

shoots,  if  white  asparagus  is  to  be  cut;  and  once  ridging  is  not  suffi- 
cient, but  after  the  spears  begin  to  appear  the  ridges  will  need  renew- 
ing every  week  or  ten  days  during  the  cutting  season,  as  the  rains  beat 
them  down  and  the  sun  bakes  a  crust  upon  the  top.  The  grower  of 
green  asparagus  has  about  the  same  work,  less  the  ridging  and  plow- 
ing down.  As  it  is  necessary  to  keep  down  all  weeds,  some  hoeing 
may  be  necessary  as  supplementary  to  a  free  use  of  the  1-horse  culti- 
vator. After  the  cutting  season,  a  cut-away  harrow  run  twice  diag- 
onally across  the  rows  loosens  up  the  soil  and  destroys  a  vast  number 
of  weeds  without  injury  to  the  crowns,  although  some  spears  may  bo 
broken  off. 

Brush. — The  bushes  should  be  cut  as  soon  as  the  berries  are  fully 
colored,  as  the  growth  will  be  sufficiently  matured  so  that  no  injury 
will  be  done  the  roots  by  removing  the  tops,  thus  avoiding  a  further 
drain  upon  the  roots  to  mature  the  seed,  and  preventing  the  dropping 
of  seed,  followed  by  the  springing  up  of  innumerable  young  asparagus 
plants. 

All  brush  should  be  promptly  collected  and  burned,  that  there 
may  be  no  lodging  places  for  insects  and  diseases.  In  case  the  fields 
were  not  leveled,  harrowed,  and  manured  at  the  close  of  the  cutting 
season,  now  is  a  convenient  time  to  perform  this  work,  although  if 
the  soil  is  rather  too  moist  it  is  well  to  leave  the  surface  firm,  that  the 
winter  rains  may  run  off  rather  than  penetrate  to  the  already  too 
damp  sub-soil  around  the  roots. 

Manuring. — In  nothing  relating  to  asparagus  has  there  been  a 
greater  change  than  in  the  practice  of  <  manuring.  Formerly  it  was 
thought  necessary  to  place  large  quantities  of  manure  in  the  bottom 
of  the  deep  trenches  in  which  the  young  plants  were  set  out  in  order 
that  sufficient  fertility  might  be  present  for  several  years  for  the 
roots,  as  after  the  plants  were  once  planted  there  would  be  no  further 
opportunity  to  apply  the  manure  in  such  an  advantageous  place; 
it  was  also  considered  necessary  to  use  much  manure  every  autumn  to 
bank  the  beds  in  order  that  the  crowns  should  not  be  injured  by  the 
winter's  frost.  These  applications,  especially  that  given  prior  to 
planting  the  young  crowns,  made  the  outlay  so  great,  and  that  for  so 
many  years  before  any  return  would  be  received  from  the  bed,  that 
only  small  plantings  were  possible  to  those  who  were  without  con- 
siderable capital. 

Although  asparagus  is  still  heavily  manured,  the  amount  now 
used  is  much  less  than  was  formerly  supposed  to  be  necessary,  only 
about  double  the  quantity  ordinarily  used  upon  root  crops,  such  as 
potatoes,  beets,  etc.  It  is  not  a  good  practice  to  put  manure  in  the  bot- 
tom of  the  trenches  or  furrows  when  setting  out  the  crowns,  because  it 
is  demonstrated  to  be  rather  a  waste  of  manure  than  otherwise,  and 
besides  the  roots  of  asparagus  thrive  better  when  resting  upon  a  more 
compact  soil;  nor  is  it  necessary  that  the  soil  should  contain  great 
amounts  of  humus  or  be  in  an  extremely  fertile  condition  when  the 
plants  are  first  put  out,  since  by  the  present  system  of  top  dressing  a 
moderately  fertile  soil  soon  becomes  exceedingly  rich  and  equal  to  the 
demands  which  the  plants  make  upon  it.  Considerable  improvement  ia 


FIELD  rAND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  39 

produced  in  the  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil  by  the  use  of  stable 
manure  upon  beds.  By  the  addition  of  humus,  porous  sandy  soil  is 
made  somewhat  more  binding  and  its  ability  to  take  up  and  retain 
moisture  thereby  increased;  while,  on  the  other  hand,  cold,  heavy 
soils  are  made  warmer  and  more  porous. 

All  organic  manures  are  suitable  for  use  on  the  beds;  but  care 
must  be  exercised  in  the  use  of  any  of  these  lest  they  be  too  hot  and 
injure  the  plants,  especially  if  applied  directly  to  the  roots  and 
immediately  over  the  crowns.  Where  the  young  shoots  come  up 
through  it,  fresh,  hot  manure  is  likely  to  produce  rust  or  to  render  the 
shoots  unsightly  and  thus  injure  their  sale.  Especially  is  this  true  in 
light,  sandy  soils. 

The  time  of  applying  manure  on  beds,  and  the  position  where  it 
should  be  placed,  are  of  some  importance.  In  the  use  of  stable 
manure,  both  writers  upon  the  subject  and  growers  actually  engaged 
in  producing  asparagus  for  the  market  almost  unanimously  state  that 
"in  the  autumn,  after  the  stalks  have  matured  and  have  been  cut, 
manure  should  be  applied  on  top  of  the  rows."  Some  give  the  caution 
not  to  put  it  just  over  the  crowns,  lest  the  shoots  next  spring  be 
injured  by  contact  with  it.  This  plan  of  top  dressing  beds  during  the 
autumn  or  early  winter  is  gradually  giving  way  to  the  more  rational 
mode  of  top  dressing  in  the  spring  and  summer.  It  was  believed  that 
autumn  dressing  strengthened  the  roots  and  enabled  them  to  throw 
up  stronger  shoots  during  the  following  spring.  This  is  a  mistake. 

It  is  during  the  growth  of  the  stalks  after  the  cutting  season  is 
over  that  the  crowns  form  the  buds  from  which  the  spears  of  next 
season  spring,  and  it  is  probable  that  it  is  principally  during  this 
period  that  the  roots  assimilate  and  store  up  the  material  which  pro- 
duce these  spears.  This  being  true,  the  plant  food  added  to  the  soil 
and  becoming)  available  after  the  cessation  of  vegetation  in  the 
autumn  can  have  little,  if  any,  effect  upon  the  spears  which  are  cut 
for  market  the  following  spring;  it  first  becomes  of  use  to  the  plant 
after  the  crop  has  been  cut  and  the  stalks  are  allowed  to  grow.  In  the 
use  of  hot,  or  fresh,  manure  it  may  be  that  the  winter  season  is  none 
too  long  to  permit  the  fertilizing  elements  to  become  available  and 
well  distributed  throughout  the  soil,  but  if  well-rotted  manure  is  used 
there  is  danger  of  the  fertility  being  leached  out  of  the  soils  by  the 
rains  and  melted  snows  of  winter. 

Those  growers  who  apply  a  liberal  dressing  of  stable  manure  or 
fertilizer  immediately  after  the  cutting  season  supply  the  required 
nourishment  to  the  plants  at  the  time  they  most  need  it  and  can  most 
profitably  utilize  it  in  the  production  of  spears.  Manure  thus  applied 
will  also  act  as  a  mulch,  preventing  the  growth  of  weeds,  keeping  the 
soil  light  and  cool,  and  preserving  the  moisture  intact.  It  should  not 
be  made  on  top  of  the  row.  This  suggestion  the  writer  wishes  to 
emphasize. 

Manuring  in  November  in  many  cases  does  more  harm  than 
good,  as  the  mass  of  manure  causes  many  roots  to  decay,  and  those 
•which  do  survive  are  weak  and  only  produce  small  spears.  It  would 
be  much  better  to  rely  upon  liberal  supplies  of  food  through  the  grow- 


40  TEE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

ing  season  than  to  give  manure  when  the  bushes  are  cut,  as  at  the 
former  period  the  roots  can  more  readily  absorb  the  food  given.  By 
feeding  in  spring  and  summer  the  crowns  are  built  up  for  the 
next  season's  supply  of  grass.  The  roots  of  the  asparagus  are  perhaps 
always  active,  but  much  less  so  in  winter  than  at  any  other  season, 
and  they  will  obtain  as  much  nutriment  from  the  soil  as  they  can  then 
use.  If  heavily  covered  with  manure  sunshine  is  excluded,  growth  is 
'  checked,  and  the  roots  have  to  fight  hard  for  existence  at  a  time  when 
they  are  none  too  strong. 

In  the  culture  of  green  spears  the  manure  is  best  utilized  by 
broadcasting,  this  application  to  be  followed  by  a  thorough  harrowing 
of  the  field.  When  white  asparagus  has  been  cut,  either  manuring 
in  the  trench  between  the  ridges  before  disturbing  them  or  harrowing 
down  the  ridges  and  then  manuring  broadcast  is  perhaps  the  most 
rational  way.  As  between  manuring  in  the  row  and  between  the 
rows,  the  latter  should  be  selected  as  the  evidently  advisable  one  by 
which  the  feeding  roots  of  the  plants  are  most  easily  reached.  Plac- 
ing the  manure  in  the  row  only  reaches  those  feeding  roots  which  are 
to  be  found  about  midway  between  the  crowns,  as  just  around  the 
crowns  are  nothing  but  storage  roots,  besides  it  is  not  desirable  to  place 
manure  too  close  to  the  crowns,  but  manuring  between  the  rows  puts 
the  manure  right  where  the  summer  rains  can  carry  the  fertility 
directly  down  into  the  (as  it  were)  open  mouths  of  the  feeding  roots. 

Green  Crop. — If  green  asparagus  is  desired,  the  stalks  need  be 
cut  only  so  far  beneath  the  surface  as  to  furnish  a  9  or  10  inch  spear, 
the  major  part  of  which,  say  6  inches  or  more,  will  be  green,  and  of 
course  above  ground.  If  white  asparagus  is  sought  for,  the  rows  will 
have  been  ridged  from  10  to  15  inches  above  the  crowns,  and  the 
spears  must  be  cut  as  soon  as  they  show  at,  and  before  they  peep  above, 
the  surface.  This  means  cutting  9  or  10  inches  below  the  surface. 
To  accomplish  this,  long  chisel-like  knives  of  various  shapes  are  used. 

Cutting  should  be  done  at  least  every  day,  and  when  vegetation  is 
rapid  twice  each  day  will  be  necessary  for  white  asparagus,  and  is 
often  desirable  when  the  green  sort  is  being  cut. 

Harvesting  and  Marketing. — Asparagus  is  one  of  the  earliest 
vegetables,  especially  if  the  roots  are  near  to  the  surface  or  the  soil 
above  them  has  been  temporarily  removed  so  that  the  rays  of  the  sun 
can  easily  penetrate  to  them.  Some  varieties  are  earlier  than  others, 
and  this  difference  in  time  of  appearance  varies  from  a  day  or  two  to 
several  weeks.  For  instance,  the  Early  Argenteuil  is  about  ten  days 
earlier  than  the  ordinary  asparagus  grown  in  the  same  locality,  and 
the  Late  Argenteuil  at  least  ten  days  later ;  so  that  there  would  be 
nearly  three  weeks  between  the  Early  and  Late  Argenteuil.  Among 
the  ordinary  varieties,  however,  there  is  only  a  short  period  between 
the  earliest  and  the  latest.— (F.  B.  61,  255  fU.  Cal.  165;  U.  Mo.  43; 
U.  Kans.  70;  U.  Miss.  1905.) 

BEANS. 

'Kinds. — For  convenience  in  reference  and  for  discussion,  beans 
may  be  divided  into  two  general  groups — "field"  and  "garden"  beans 
— which  are  by  no  means  distinctly  separate  either  in  appearance  or 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  41 

in  characteristics.  Each  of  these  groups  can  again  be  divided  into 
bush  and  pole  beans.  Bush  beans  of  the  field  type  are  recognized,  for 
commercial  purposes,  under  three  well-marked  types,  known  as  Kid- 
ney, Marrow,  and  Pea  beans,  each  of  which  may  be  subdivided  into 
two  groups,  colored  and  white.  The  garden  beans,  like  the  field 
beans,  may  be  divided  into  bush  and  pole  types;  these  again  into 
Kidneys  and  Limas,  the  term  "Kidney"  in  this  case  including  all  of 
the  common  garden  beans  whether  of  one  type  or  another,  and  this 
group  may  again  be  divided  into  wax  and  green  pod.  The  same 
subdivision  may  also  be  recorded  under  pole  beans,  as  is  suggested  in 
the  following  classification  : 

("Kidney  .........  5  Colored. 

1  White. 

Bush  ..........    Marrow  .........  (Colored. 

I  White. 


Field  beans.  .  .  . 


I  Pea  5  Colored. 

"(White. 
Pole  or  corn  hill .    White  or  colored. 


Oardenbeans..  .........  , 

[Pole  ...........  J  Lima.  (  Green  pod. 

[Runner  (Scarlet  Runner). 

Soil  —  While  clay  loams  or  soils  overlying  limestone  are  most 
desirable,  sandy  and  even  gravelly  loams  may  be  used,  but  these  latter 
soils  should  contain  more  or  less  humus  and  the  gravelly  soil  should 
not  be  too  coarse.  Beans  may  be  grown  on  heavy  clay  soils  but  the 
surface  or  underground  drainage,  or  both,  must  be  good  and  special 
attention  must  also  be  given  cultural  methods  to  produce  a  fine, 
mellow  seed  bed.  Muck  soils  or  those  with  a  superabundance  of 
humus  are  not  suitable  as  they  tend  to  produce  vines  at  the  expense 
of  the  seed.  It  is  also  true  that  this  crop  will  not  thrive  on  low,  wet, 
poorly  drained  soils.  Beans  seem  to  produce  good  crops  on  soils  some- 
what deficient  in  nitrogen  when  well  supplied  with  potash  and  phos- 
phorus. Contrary  to  a  somewhat  prevalent  notion,  beans  will  not 
produce  well  on  very  poor  soils,  but  require  a  fair  degree  of  fertility. 

Seed.  —  Care  should  be  exercised  in  the  selection  of  beans  for  seed. 
None  but  the  best  hand-picked  beans  should  be  used  for  planting,  as 
the  success  of  the  crop  is  quite  largely  dependent  on  the  vitality  of  the 
seed. 

Tilth.  —  Since  the  bean  is  a  warm-season  crop  and  can  not  safely 
be  planted  until  after  danger  from  killing  frost  has  passed,  the 
preparation  of  the  soil  for  field  beans  should  be  deferred  until  the 
vegetation  covering  the  area  has  made  considerable  growth,  so  that  it 
may  be  as  completely  destroyed  as  possible  during  the  operations  of 
plowing,  harrowing,  and  fitting  the  land  for  the  reception  of  the  seed. 
The  short-season  character  of  the  bean  crop  enables  the  land  to  be 


42  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

occupied  during  the  winter  months  by  some  cover  crop,  such  as  wheat 
or  rye,  and  if  the  same  land  is  used  year  after  year  for  the  production 
of  beans,  the  turning  under  of  winter  coyer  crops  furnishes  an 
important  means  by  which  the  store  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil  can 
be  maintained,  a  consideration  of  great  moment  in  sections  chiefly 
dependent  upon  commercial  fertilizers  as  a  source  for  available  plant 
food. 

After  the  land  has  attained  proper  dryness  in  the  spring  it  should 
be  plowed  from  6  to  8  inches  in  depth,  and  immediately  compacted 
and  harrowed,  so  as  to  prevent  the  loss  of  moisture.  The  surface  of 
the  seed  bed  should  be  made  smooth  and  fine,  so  that  the  drill  or 
planter  can  be  economically  used  upon  it.  If  dry  weather  follows  at 
this  season  of  the  year,  a  good  practice  is,  immediately  preceding  the 
planting  of  the  crop,  to  run  a  heavy  land  roller  over  the  area,  particu- 
larly if  the  planting  is  done  with  an  ordinary  grain  drill.  If  the 
planting  is  done  with  a  planter  similar  to  the  ordinary  corn  planter 
and  the  land  has  been  rolled  previously,  it  is  advisable  to  go  over  it 
with  a  spike-tooth  harrow  or  some  other  type  of  smoothing  harrow 
after  the  crop  has  been  planted,  in  order  that  the  land  may  not  possess 
a  compacted  condition  from  the  substratum  to  the  surface. 

Planting. — Growers  have  found  that  it  is  better  to  postpone 
planting  the  crop  until  as  late  in  the  season  as  is  practicable  and  yet  be 
able  to  safely  harvest  the  crop  before  the  vines  are  injured  by  fall 
frost.  The  late  planted  crop  has  the  advantage  of  escaping  the  most 
serious  attacks  of  the  bean  rust.  While  there  are  undoubtedly 
varieties  which  are  more  or  less  resistant  to  this  trouble,  yet  the  general 
practice  of  late  planting  has  been  found  to  be  of  decided  advantage. 
In  planting  the  field  crop  the  distance  between  the  rows  varies  from 
28  to  36  inches,  according  to  the  implements  used  in  harvesting  the 
crop,  30  inches  being  a  very  satisfactory  and  not  an  unusual  distance 
for  placing  the  rows.  The  seeds  are  so  scattered  as  to  fall  from  2  to  4 
inches  apart  in  the  row.  The  ideal  distance  would  be  undoubtedly  6 
inches,  if  it  were  possible  to  obtain  a  perfect  stand  of  plants  at  this 
distance.  For  distributing  the  seed  in  the  row  at  these  distances  a  bean 
planter  or  a  check  row  corn  planter  may  be  set  to  drop  the  seeds  in 
drills.  A  common  practice  is  to  use  an  ordinary  grain  drill  and  stop 
a  sufficient  number  of  tubes  to  enable  two  or  three  rows  of  beans  to 
be  planted  at  the  proper  distance  apart  without  the  necessity  of  pur- 
chasing a  special  implement. 

Quantity  of  Seed. — The  quantity  required  to  plant  an  acre  of 
beans  varies  with  the  size  of  the  beans;  that  is,  a  half-bushel  of  small 
Pea  beans  is  sufficient  to  plant  an  acre  of  ground,  while  a  bushel  of 
Red  Kidney  beans  is  hardly  sufficient  to  plant  an  acre  when  the  seed 
is  distributed  in  the  ordinary  fashion  in  drills  rather  than  in  hills. 
In  planting  beans  of  the  Pea  and  Marrow  types  the  quantity  of  seed 
varies  from  one-half  to  a  bushel  per  acre,  depending  upon  the  quality 
of  the  beans  and  upon  the  preferences  of  the  planter.  For  Kidney 
beans  the  quantity  varies  from  a  bushel  to  as  much  as  six  pecks  per 
acre.  Ordinarily,  with  rows  30  inches'1  apart,  a  bushel  is  a  sufficient 
quantity  for  seeding  an  acre. 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  43 

Depth  of  Planting. — The  depth  at  which  beans  should  be 
planted  is  determined  by  the  character  of  the  soil  and  the  season  of 
the  year  at  which  they  are  planted.  In  heavy,  retentive  soils  planting 
should  be  made  comparatively  shallow,  as  the  peculiar  habit  of  growth 
of  the  bean  is  such  that  it  can  not  readily  reach  the  surface  if  planted 
deep  in  such  soils.  Upon  light  soils  and  early  in  the  season,  planting 
can  be  made  quite  deep.  Three  inches  is  not  too  deep  upon  such  soils, 
but  an  inch  and  a  half  or  2  inches  is  the  maximum  depth  for  planting 
upon  retentive  soils.  All  things  considered,  a  satisfactory  depth  for 
planting  beans  is  about  \%  inches. 

Cultivation. — Like  all  other  hoe  crops  field  beans  require  fre- 
quent, shallow  cultivation.  The  stirring  of  the  soil  for  the  purpose  of 
holding  the  weeds  in  check  and  preserving  a  soil  mulch  over  the  area 
occupied  by  the  growing  crop,  is  the  important  factor  to  be  considered 
in  culture.  At  the  last  cultivation  the  plants  may  be  slightly  hilled ; 
that  is,  the  soil  may  be  thrown  toward  the  plants  with  small  wings. 
This  has  the  advantage  of  leaving  the  plants  on  a  slight  ridge,  which 
facilitates  the  work  of  harvesting  when  such  work  is  done  by  mechan- 
ical means.  In  the  cultivation  of  beans  it  is  traditional  that  they 
should  not  be  cultivated  when  the  dew  is  on  the  vines.  This  undoubt- 
edly has  a  slight  foundation  for  the  reason  that  moisture  is  a  conveyor 
of  spores  of  disease  and  might  have  a  tendency  to  distribute  them 
more  widely  than  would  be  the  case  if  moisture  were  allowed  to  dry 
off  the  leaves  without  being  disturbed. 

Harvesting. — For  many  years  the  handling  of  hoe  crops,  sucK 
as  field  beans,  upon  an  extensive  scale  was  impossible  because  of  the 
great  amount  of  hand  labor  necessary  to  gather  the  crop.  Within 
recent  years,  however,  labor-saving  devices  have  been  invented  so 
that  now  the  once  laborious  practice  of  hand-pulling  individual 
plants  can  be  done  away  with  by  the  use  of  a  bean  harvester.  After 
the  plants  are  thrown  together  by  the  harvester  it  is  customary  for 
men  with  ordinary  pitchforks,  either  2  or  3  tined,  to  follow  the  har- 
vester and  place  the  beans  in  small  heaps  to  cure  for  several  days 
ibefore  storing  them  in  barns  or  sheds  for  thrashing.  In  some  in- 
stances, where  the  work  is  done  upon  a  very  extensive  scale  and  where 
the  loss  from  shelling  is  not  considered  sufficient  to  justify  the  em- 
ployment of  hand  labor  for  bunching  the  beans  with  forks,  an 
ordinary  horserake  is  employed  for  the  purpose.  Where  the  beans 
are  to  remain  for  a  longer  period  and  to  become  more  thoroughly 
cured  in  the  field  and  where  the  work  of  harvesting  is  done  entirely 
by  hand,  the  crop  is  frequently  placed  in  shocks  which  are  built 
about  a  pole  4  or  5  feet  in  height,  both  ends  of  which  have  been 
sharpened  and  one  end  firmly  placed  in  the  ground.  A  small 
quantity  of  straw,  grass,  or  other  material  is  placed  around  the  base 
of  the  stake,  and  the  beans  as  they  are  pulled  are  piled  around  the 
pole  until  a  compact  miniature  stack  about  4  or  5  feet  high  is 
formed.  The  curing  process  in  any  case  is  carried  far  enough  to 
prevent  the  vines  molding  after  storing  them  in  the  barn  prior  to 
thrashing.  If  the  vines  are  thoroughly  ripened  in  the  field  before 
harvesting,  they  can  be  stored  in  from  two  to  three  days  if  the 


44  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

weather  is  satisfactory.  If,  however,  the  vines  have  some  green 
leaves  upon  them  and  the  pods  are  not  thoroughly  dry,  the  period  for 
curing  in  the  field  is  of  necessity  much  longer  than  with  thoroughly 
ripened  plants. 

Storage. — After  the  crop  has  been  properly  cured  in  the  field  it  is 
customary  to  store  the  beans  in  barn  lofts  or  in  sheds  until  the 
weather  has  become  quite  cool  before  the  work  of  thrashing  is  done. 
In  some  instances,  however,  if  the  beans  are  thoroughly  field  cured 
they  may  be  thrashed  in  the  field;  but  ordinarily,  in  those  regions 
where  beans  are  extensively  grown,  weather  conditions  will  not  per- 
mit of  their  being  cured  and  left  in  the  field  a  sufficient  period  to 
enable  the  entire  work  of  harvesting  and  thrashing  to  be  carried  on 
in  the  open. 

Care  Necessary. — All  operations  connected  with  the  harvesting 
and  field  management  of  beans  should  be  done  as  carefully  as  possi- 
ble, in  order  to  avoid  injury  to  the  plants  while  in  the  growing  con- 
dition and  to  prevent  shelling  the  beans  after  they  have  ripened. 
Most  varieties  of  beans  shell  more  or  less  easily  after  the  pods  have 
become  thoroughly  matured.  Most  extensive  growers  of  beans  con- 
sider the  loss  by  shelling  resulting  from  the  use  of  labor-saving 
machinery  of  less  money  value  than  the  added  cost  of  carrying  on  all 
operations  by  hand  in  the  most  careful  way.  In  other  words,  the 
loss  from  the  use  of  labor-saving  machinery  is  not  sufficient  to  justify 
the  return  to  hand  labor  in  the  care  and  management  of  the  crop. 

Threshing. — Beans  are  now  threshed  by  a  special  machine  or 
beaner  which  has  been  instrumental  in  materially  increasing  the 
acreage  of  beans  grown.  These  machines  are  usually  introduced  into 
localities  where  beans  are  grown  commercially  and  offered  for  hire 
on  a  plan  similar  to  that  used  by  grain  threshers. 

Cleaning  and  Grading. — While  the  farm  operations  in  connec- 
tion with  the  preparation  of  field  beans  for  market  usually  cease  with 
the  thrashing  of  the  crop,  the  cleaning  and  grading  of  the  product  is 
a  very  important  item  and  requires  much  hand  work.  Besides  the 
removal  of  sticks  and  straws  from  the  grain  by  the  use  of  the  fan,  the 
beans  are  passed  through  a  machine  which  is  provided  with  a  broad, 
slow-moving  belt  placed  at  such  an  angle  that  split  beans  and  peas, 
dirt,  and  stones  which  are  not  removed  by  the  fan  adhere  to  the  belt 
and  are  thrown  out,  while  the  smooth,  perfect  seeds  fall  back  into 
another  receptacle  and  are  thus  separated  from  the  dirt  and  broken 
seeds.  After  this  the  beans  are  usually  subjected  to  a  third  operation, 
which  consists  in  removing  by  hand  all  broken  and  discolored  seeds, 
as  well  as  foreign  matter,  which  were  not  removed  in  the  other 
operations. 

Garden  Beans. — The  type  as  well  as  the  variety  of  garden  bean, 
to  be  grown  is  determined  by  the  purpose  for  which  it  is  to  be  used. 
If  it  is  to  be  used  as  a  snap  or  string  bean  for  early  market,  quick- 
maturing  green  or  wax-podded  varieties  are  selected.  If  for  canning 
purposes,  a  different  variety  is  selected,  which  may  have  either  green 
or  wax  pods,  while  as  a  rule  green  beans  which  are  required  late 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  45 

in  the  season  for  table  use  belong  to  the  pole  type.  For  early  beans, 
however,  the  bush  type  is  the  one  most  commonly  used. 

Fertilizers. — While  beans  are  quick-growing  and  early-maturing 
plants  requiring  an  abundance  of  available  plant  food  in  the  soil,  yet, 
because  of  their  family  relations,  being  legumes,  they  make  the  soil 
better  for  having  been  grown  upon  it.  They  are  nitrogen-gathering 
plants,  and  for  this  reason  require  only  a  small  percentage  of  this 
element  in  any  fertilizer  used  upon  them.  While  heavy  applications 
of  fertilizers  containing  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash  are 
used  by  truck  growers  in  the  production  of  beans,  as  a  rule  such 
fertilizers  should  be  relatively  richer  in  phosphoric  acid  and  potash 
than  in  nitrogen.  The  production  of  garden  beans  for  snap  or  string 
beans,  however,  demands  a  larger  percentage  of  immediately  avail- 
able nitrogen  than  does  the  production  of  field  beans  for  the  dry 
grain,  as  in  the  former  case  the  crop  occupies  the  land  a  shorter  time 
and  therefore  gives  it  less  opportunity  to  provide  itself  with  a  supply 
of  nitrogen  from  the  atmosphere.  The  fertilizer,  if  used  in  the  form 
of  commercial  fertilizer,  may  be  distributed  broadcast  over  the  area 
occupied  by  the  crop  with  a  grain  drill  or  a  fertilizer  distributer, 
or  it  may  be  scattered  along  the  row  at  the  time  the  seeds  are  sown 
by  one  of  the  many  types  of  seed  drill  having  a  fertilizer  attachment. 

Planting. — Garden  beans,  like  field  beans,  may  be  planted  either 
in  hills  or  in  drills.  The  customary  practice,  however,  is  to  plant  the 
seeds  in  drills  so  that  they  shall  fall  2  or  4  inches  apart  in  rows  far 
enough  apart  to  admit  of  cultivation  with  either  one  or  two  horse 
implements.  Because  of  their  peculiar  habit  of  germination — the 
elongation  of  the  part  between  the  root  and  the  seed  leaves,  called  the 
hypocotyl — the  seed  leaves  or  cotyledons  are  lifted  out  of  the  soil.  A 
large  expenditure  of  energy  on  the  part  of  the  plant  is  necessary  to 
accomplish  this,  and  the  more  compacted  the  soil  and  the  deeper  the 
seed  is  planted  the  more  time  and  energy  are  required  in  accomplish- 
ing this  result.  It  is  evident,  therefore,  that  the  shallower  the  beans 
can  be  planted  without  retarding  satisfactory  germination,  the  better. 
Upon  thoroughly  fine  and  compacted  soils  the  seeds  are  planted  from 
I1/!  to  2  inches  deep.  Shallower  planting  does  not  as  a  rule  give  as 
satisfactory  germination  as  planting  within  the  range  above  men- 
tioned. While  garden  beans  are  planted  in  extensive  areas,  they  are, 
nevertheless,  frequently  used  as  a  catch  crop  between  other  plants, 
such  as  squashes  and  cucumbers.  The  bean,  being  a  quick-growing 
plant,  matures  its  crop  and  is  out  of  the  way  before  the  entire  area  is 
demanded  by  the  companion  crop. 

Harvesting. — From  the  nature  of  the  product  the  harvesting  of 
garden  beans  for  use  as  string  or  snap  beans  must  necessarily  be  done 
by  hand.  Their  extensive  culture  is  therefore  restricted  to  areas  in 
which  an  abundant  labor  supply  which  can  be  commanded  at  short 
notice  is  available.  After  the  beans  are  picked  they  are  carried  to  a 
convenient  sorting  table,  either  in  the  open  or  under  shelter,  where 
thev  are  looked  over,  all  diseased  and  broken  beans  rejected,  and  the 
baskets  uniformly  filled  and  shaken  down  preparatory  to  covering 
them  for  shipment. 


46  TEE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

LIMA  BEANS. 

Under  the  name  of  Lima  beans  two  distinct  types  are 
now  recognized:  Pole  Limas  and  dwarf,  or  bush,  Limas.  Lima 
beans  are  of  very  great  commercial  value,  but  are  not  sufficiently 
appreciated  as  a  table  food  because  it  is  not  generally  known  that  in 
a  dry  state  they  can  be  used  in  practically  the  same  manner  as  are 
the  common  beans.  In  reality  they  are  richer  and  more  delicate  in 
flavor  than  the  common  beans,  and  can  be  used  in  as  many  different 
ways.  The  virtues  of  these  types  as  green  beans  need  only  a  passing 
mention,  and  their  value  as  an  accompaniment  of  corn  in  succotash 
is  well  known  to  every  consumer  of  canned  goods. 

Planting. — The  common  method  of  handling  the  Lima  bean  in 
the  climate  of  the  northern  tier  of  States,  outside  of  the  irrigated  belt, 
is  to  plant  from  three  to  five  beans  in  hills  18  to  36  inches  apart,  with 
the  rows  3%  to  4  feet  apart,  and  after  all  danger  from  cold  and  from 
insect  enemies  is  past  the  beans  are  thinned  to  about  three  plants  to 
the  hill.  As  the  beans  are  exceedingly  tender,  it  is  necessary  to  delay 
planting  in  the  open  until  about  a  week  or  ten  days  after  the  time 
for  planting  the  common  garden  beans.  After  the  second  cultiva- 
tion, when  the  tendency  to  climb  has  manifested  itself,  the  plantation 
is  supplied  with  poles  from  5  to  6  feet  high,  or  with  a  trellis  running 
from  end  to  end  of  the  row,  which  may  be  made  by  stretching  two 
or  three  wires  lengthwise  of  the  row  and  weaving  between  them 
strands  of  ordinary  wool  twine.  If  the  trellis  is  employed  the  beans 
can  be  planted 'in  practically  continuous  rows,  so  that  ^ they  stand 
about  a  foot  apart.  Toward  the  northern  limit  for  cultivating  this 
crop,  one  is  fortunate  if  one-half  to  two-thirds  of  the  pods  which  set 
upon  the  plants  mature  the  seed.  Farther  south  the  crop  is  propor- 
tionally heavier. 

In  California  and  in  other  irrigated  regions  where  there  are  well- 
marked  wet  and  dry  seasons,  the  dry  season,  accompanied  by  heavy 
fogs,  occurring  during  the  summer  months,  it  is  possible  to  cultivate 
Lima  beans  somewhat  as  follows :  Upon  moderately  rich,  somewhat 
sandy  valley  land,  cultivation  can  be  carried  out  by  planting  the 
beans  as  soon  as  all  danger  from  rains  has  ceased  and  the  plantation 
will  remain  dry  except  for  irrigation.  If  there  has  not  been  suffi- 
cient winter  rain  to  thoroughly  moisten  the  land  it  should  be  well 
watered  and  allowed  to  dry  to  a  good  cultural  condition  before  plant- 
ing. Seed  can  then  be  planted  in  hills  about  S1^  or  4  feet  apart  each 
way,  or  in  drills,  the  beans  scattered  about  a  foot  apart  in  rows  4  feet 
apart.  After  the  beans  have  germinated  it  may  be  necessary  to  culti- 
vate them  once  or  twice  with  a  sweep  of  some  type,  to  destroy  any 
weeds  which  may  have  sprung  up  from  the  moist  ground.  All  mois- 
ture should  be  withheld  and  a  dust  mulch  over  the  surface  preserved 
by  running  a  sweep  over  the  plantation  once  or  twice  more,  and  then 
the  vines  should  be  allowed  to  take  possession  of  the  territory.  This 
obviates  the  necessity  of  using  poles,  and  the  crop  can  grow;  to 
maturity  under  these  conditions  without  irrigation,  without  cultiva- 
tion, and  without  poles. 

At  harvest  time  a  root  cutter  is  passed  under  the  lines  of  the 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  47 

rows,  severing  the  roots  of  the  plants,  and  after  the  plants  have  dried 
and  become  somewhat  cured  they  are  thrown  into  convenient  heaps 
for  loading  on  wagons  and  are  allowed  to  remain  in  these  heaps  until 
near  the  approach  of  the  rainy  season.  Then  they  are  carried  to  the 
thrashing  floors,  where  they  are  beaten  out  by  the  tramping  of  ani- 
mals or  by  driving  over  the  heap  a  device  somewhat  similar  to  the 
ordinary  cutaway  harrow. 

The  dwarf  Lima  beans,  because  of  their  habit  of  growth,  are 
planted  and  cultivated  practically  the  same  as  are  field  beans.  They 
are  slightly  hardier  than  pole  Limas,  and  for  that  reason  toward  the 
northern  limit  of  the  range  of  this  crop  can  be  planted  somewhat 
earlier  in  the  season  than  the  pole  Limas. — (F.  B.  289;  U.  Mich. 
259;  S.  C.  E.  S  .10;  S.  Dak.  E.  S.  47,  91;  Iowa  E.  S.  47;  Miss. 
E.  S.  131.) 

BEETS. 

The  red  garden  beet  may  be  grown  in  any  good  soil,  but  rich, 
sandy  loam  will  give  the  best  results.  Sow  the  seeds  in  the  spring  as 
soon  as  danger  of  frost  has  passed.  Beets  should  be  planted  in  drills 
12  to  18  inches  apart,  and  when  the  plants  are  well  up  they  should 
be  thinned  to  4  or  5  inches  in  the  row.  If  desirable  to  plant  in  rows 
3  feet  apart  for  horse  cultivation,  the  seeds  may  be  sown  in  a  double 
drill  with  6  inches  between,  leaving  30  inches  for  cultivation.  Two 
ounces  of  beet  seed  are  required  to  plant  100  feet  of  row,  or  5  pounds 
to  the  acre.  As  a  rule  each  seed  ball  contains  more  than  one  seed,  and 
this  accounts  for  beets  coming  up  very  thickly.  The  seed  should  be 
covered  to  a  depth  of  about  1  inch.  For  a  succession  of  young  beets 
during  the  summer,  plantings  should  be  made  every  four  or  five 
weeks  during  the  spring  months.  Beets  intended  for  winter  storage 
should  not  be  sown  until  late  in  the  summer,  the  crop  being  harvested 
and  stored  in  the  same  manner  as  turnips.  Sugar  beets  are  often 
Bubstituted  for  the  ordinary  garden  beet,  especially  for  winter  use. 

A  soil  that  is  well  adapted  to  growing  the  usual  vegetables  will 
be  found  good  for  this  one.  It  may  be  slightly  heavier  than  that  for 
the  crops  that  are  grown  for  their  foliage,  as  lettuce.  A  good  cabbage 
soil  will  be  found  of  about  the  right  consistency.  "Wet  or  soggy  land 
will  not  raise  a  crop.  Plow  deep  and  prepare  the  ground  well;  the 
seedlings  are  quite  small  and  need  considerable  coaxing  before  they 
will  make  a  good  start.  Use  plenty  of  fertilizer  of  some  well  prepared 
kind.  Eough  or  undecomposed  material  should  not  be  used.  A 
sprinkling  of  powdered  nitrate  soda  as  a  top  dressing  when  the  plants 
are  one-third  grown  will  produce  a  rapid  growth.  In  applying,  be 
careful  not  to  apply  so  as  to  touch  the  foliage,  unless  during  a  rain. 
It  is  not  profitable  to  transplant  beets;  it  may  be  done  on  a  small 
scale,  but  it  is  too  expensive  to  practice  on  a  large  scale. 

Varieties. — According  to  shape  of  the  root  one  may  divide  beets 
into  two  classes,  viz.,  Long  Rooted  and  Globular.  If  color  is  made 
the  basis  of  classification  you  have  red,  white  and  yellow  kinds.  Extra 
Early  Blood  Turnip,  Eclipse  and  Extra  Early  Egyptian  are  good 
varieties  to  grow  for  market.  The  first  named  is  probably  the  best; 
the  last  named  has  the  disadvantage  of  becoming  stringy  if  it  ma- 


48  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

tures  during  a  long,  dry  spell,  or  if  allowed  to  stand  too  long.  The 
deep  red  varieties  are  preferred  in  the  markets,  and  those  that  are 
turnip  shaped  sell  better  than  the  long. 

Marketing. — The  usual  method  is  to  use  barrels  or  large  boxes ; 
this  is  a  clumsy  way,  and  one  not  calculated  to  bring  the  best  price. 
The  usual  vegetable  crate  will  be  found  handy  and  desirable. 

In  districts  where  there  are  pickling  factories,  and  near  large 
cities,  small  beets,  with  greens,  are  raised  with  profit,  but  these  can 
not  be  shipped  to  a  distant  market.  For  a  distant  market  gather  tops 
and  all;  carry  to  the  packing-house;  remove  the  tops  with  a  sharp 
knife,  leaving  about  an  inch  of  the  leaf-stalk  on  the  beet.  Remove 
the  dirt,  and  pack  in  vegetable  crates.  The  leaves  put  in  a  compost 
heap  will  pay  for  the  trouble  of  hauling,  or  they  can  be  fed  to  do- 
mestic animals  with  profit.  The  beet  itself  makes  one  of  the  best 
feeds  for  milch  cows,  and  is  excellent  for  other  domestic  animals.— 
(F.  B.  225;  N.  C.  A.  E.  S.  132;  Fla.  E.  S.  31;  U.  Idaho  10;  N.  H.  Col. 
99, 125;  N.  J.  A.  Col.  Rpt.  1900.) 

BORAGE. 

The  leaves  are  used  for  flavoring. 
BROCCOLI. 

Broccoli  is  simply  a  variety  of  cauliflower  that  is  more  com- 
monly grown  for  fall  use,  as  it  is  rather  more  hardy  than  the  true 
cauliflower.  Lee's  Sprouting  Broccoli  is  a  branching  sort  that  is 
esteemed  in  some  places.  There  is  a  great  deal  of  misunderstand- 
ing regarding  the  Cauliflower  and  Broccoli.  Both  are  the  same  in 
their  general  make  up  and  growth,  both  producing  heads  in  the  same 
manner  and  to  the  casual  observer  are  taken  one  for  the  other.  The 
difference  is  that  Cauliflower  is  a  more  tender  variety  and  therefore 
will  not  stand  a  very  low  temperature.  The  seed  is  sown  in  early 
spring  and  will  produce  heads  during  the  summer.  The  Broccoli 
will  stand  a  temperature  as  low  as  25  without  much  injury  to  the 
plant.  The  seed  is  sown  in  the  spring,  the  plants  set  out  in  June  or 
early  part  of  July  and  continue  to  grow  until  the  spring  following, 
some  varieties  producing  heads  at  intervals  during  winter  and  up  to 
as  late  as  May.  Attention  needs  to  be  directed  during  the  winter  to 
such  plants  as  are  about  to  produce  heads.  These  should  have  the 
outer  leaves  turned  over  the  head  to  protect  it  from  frost  to  which  it 
is  very  susceptible.  The  seed  may  be  sown  and  the  plants  treated  in 
every  way  as  for  the  cabbage.  They  thrive  well  in  a  deep^,  rich  soil. 
Much  better  results  would  be  had  if  more  attention  were  given  to  the 
matter  of  deep  cultivation,  that  is,  in  deep  spading  or  plowing  of  the 
ground.  Manure  that  has  been  well  composted  should  be  used  plenti- 
fully and  plowed  in  deep.  By  so  doing  the  roots  of  the  plants  are 
encouraged  to  penetrate  deep  into  the  soil  where  they  can  find  mois- 
ture as  well  as  food.  The  shallow  plowing  in  of  manure  has  the 
tendency  to  keep  the  feeding  roots  of  plants  near  the  surface  and 
will  therefore  soon  dry  out  and  turn  blue,  and  when  once  the  plants 
are  stricken  with  the  blues  no  further  growth  will  be  made  and  they 
might  as  well  be  discarded.— (Oreg.  E.  S.  74;  N.  C.  E.  S.  132.) 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  49 

BRUSSELS  SPROUTS. 

This  crop  is  closely  related  to  cabbage  and  cauliflower.  Instead 
of  a  single  head,  Brussels  sprouts  form  a  large  number  of  small  heads 
in  the  axils  of  the  leaves.  As  the  heads  begin  to  crowd,  the  leaves 
should  be  broken  from  the  stem  of  the  plant  to  give  them  more  room. 
A  few  leaves  should  be  left  at  the  top  of  the  stem  where  the  new 
heads  are  being  formed.  Brussels  sprouts  are  more  hardy  than  cab- 
bage, and  in  mild  climates  may  remain  in  the  open  ground  all  win- 
ter, the  heads  being  removed  as  desired.  For  winter  use  in  cold 
localities,  take  up  plants  that  are  well  laden  with  heads  and  set  them 
close  together  in  a  pit,  cold  frame,  or  cellar,  with  a  little  soil  around 
the  roots.  The  uses  of  Brussels  sprouts  are  similar  to  those  of  cabbage, 
but  they  are  considered  to  be  of  a  superior  flavor.  They  require  the 
game  treatment  as  cabbage.  The  soil  must  be  rich  and  requires  con- 
siderable moisture.  The  small  sprouts  must  grow  rapidly  or  they 
will  be  tough.  Sow  the  seed  in  hot-bed  and  transplant,  or  scatter 
seed  in  hills  and  thin.  The  plants  must  have  plenty  of  room.  Rows 
should  be  thirty  inches  apart  and  the  plants  not  closer  than  two  feet. 
— (F.  B.  255;  U.  Idaho  E.  S.  10;  Cornell  U.  E.  S.  292.) 

CABBAGE. 

Cabbage  is  one  of  the  most  universally  cultivated  of  the  garden 
plants.  Although  it  is  one  of  the  coarser  vegetables  it  finds  a  place 
in  the  home  garden  as  well  as  in  the  market  garden  and  truck  farm. 
In  some  sections  of  the  United  States  it  is  extensively  grown  as  a 
farm  crop.  Early  cabbage  is  practically  all  consumed  as  a  green 
vegetable.  The  late  crop,  on  the  other  hand,  is  handled  as  a  fresh 
vegetable,  as  a  storage  crop,  and  for  the  manufacture  of  sauerkraut. 
It  is  always  in  demand,  and  under  present  conditions  is  always  avail- 
able, either  as  the  product  of  a  southern  truck  farm  or  a  northern 
farm,  garden,  or  storage  house.  The  group  of  cultivated  plants 
which  has  been  derived  from  the  wild  cabbage  presents  a  greater 
diversity  of  form  than  that  derived  from  any  other  single  ancestral 
type. 

Wild  cabbage  is  a  robust-growing  broad-leaved  plant  enjoying 
the  low,  moist  areas  near  the  seacoast  of  southern  Europe.  The  most 
closely  allied  form  now  in  cultivation  is  the  collard.  The  wide  varia- 
tion in  the  group  is  illustrated  by  the  diversity  of  form  shown  in 
collards,  kale,  tree  cabbage,  marrow  kale,  cauliflower,  and  Brussels 
sprouts.  It  is  almost  beyond  the  bounds  of  reason  to  believe  that  all 
these  forms  have  been  derived  from  a  common  parentage,  yet  such  is 
the  fact. 

Seed. — In  no  truck  crop  does  the  character  of  the  seed  count  for 
more  than  in  cabbage.  It  is  very  essential  that  the  crop  come  to 
marketable  maturity  early,  that  the  heads  be  uniform  in  size  and 
character,  and  that  they  mature  so  that  the  whole  crop  can  be  har- 
vested at  two  cuttings.  The  small  saving  made  by  the  purchase  of 
cheap  or  inferior  seed  is  usually  paid  for  a  hundred  times  over  in  the 
lessened  value  of  the  crop.  A  grower  can  not  afford  to  risk  his  crop 
for  so  small  a  saving.  The  best  seed  that  can  be  obtained  is  none  too 
good,  and  anything  short  of  this  is  not  good  business.  Without 


50  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

highly  viable  seed  of  a  good  strain,  true  to  type,  the  best  results  can 
not  be  expected.  For  early  spring  cabbage  in  the  South,  sow  the 
seeds  in  an  outdoor  bed  and  transplant  to  the  garden  before  Janu- 
ary 1.  In  the  North,  plant  the  seeds  in  a  hotbed  during  February 
and  set  the  plants  in  the  open  ground  as  early  as  the  soil  can  be 
worked.  For  a  late  crop  in  the  North,  plant  the  seeds  in  a  bed  in  the 
open  ground  in  May  or  June  and  transplant  to  the  garden  in  July. 
Early  cabbages  require  a  rich,  warm  soil  in  order  that  they  may  ma- 
ture early.  For  late  cabbages  the  soil  should  be  heavier  and  morel 
retentive  of  moisture  and  not  so  rich  as  for  the  early  crop,  as  tha 
heads  are  liable  to  burst.  Cabbages  should  be  set  in  rows  30  to  36 
inches  apart  and  14  to  18  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Where  the  plants 
are  set  out  in  the  autumn  and  allowed  to  remain  in  the  ground  over 
winter,  they  are  usually  placed  on  top  of  ridges. 

Soil. — The  soil  for  cabbage  must  necessarily  vary  in  different 
localities.  In  one  area  it  may  be  of  an  alluvial  character,  while  in 
another  it  may  be  sedentary,  and  in  still  another  it  may  be  charac- 
teristic glacial  drift.  The  fact  that  cabbage  grows  well  in  all  these 
soils  indicates  its  adaptation  to  a  wide  range  of  conditions.  The 
main  thing  with  cabbage  is  an  abundant  supply  of  immediately  avail- 
able plant  food.  Market  gardeners  rely  chiefly  upon  stable  manure 
for  their  supply  of  plant  food. 

Cultivation. — Among  market  gardeners  it  is  a  common  expres- 
sion that  "cabbage  should  be  hoed  every  day."  Perhaps  no  other 
crop  responds  more  quickly  to  good  cultivation  and  an  ample  food 
supply.  This  is  undoubtedly  the  explanation  of  the  above  quoted 
expression.  In  cultivating  cabbage  the  work  should  be  frequent 
and  thorough,  but  the  cultivation  should  not  be  deep.  The  aim 
should  be  to  destroy  all  competing  weeds  and  to  maintain  a  loose, 
friable  layer  of  soil  about  2  inches  deep  over  the  surface  of  the  area 
devoted  to  cabbage. 

Storage. — Early  cabbage  must  be  used  soon  after  it  has  formed 
solid  heads,  as  it  will  not  keep  during  hot  weather.  Late  cabbage 
may  be  buried  in  pits  or  stored  in  cellars  or  specially  constructed 
houses.  The  usual  method  of  storing  cabbage  is  to  dig  a  trench  about 
18  inches  deep  and  3  feet  wide  and  set  the  cabbage  upright,  with 
the  heads  close  together  and  the  roots  bedded  in  soil.  As  cold  weather 
comes  on,  the  heads  are  covered  slightly  with  straw  and  then  3  or  4 
inches  of  earth  put  on.  Slight  freezing  does  not  injure  cabbage, 
but  it  should  not  be  subjected  to  repeated  freezing  and  thawing.  If 
stored  in  a  cellar  or  building,  the  heads  are  generally  cut  from  the 
stems  and  stored  on  slatted  shelves  or  in  shallow  bins.  While  in 
storage,  cabbage  should  be  well  ventilated  and  kept  as  cool  as  possible 
without  freezing. 

Varieties. — The  varieties  of  cabbage  used  in  the  trucking  sec- 
tion are  practically  limited  to  the  Wakefield  type.  There  are  two 
strains  of  this  type  of  cabbage  now  extensively  employed :  The  true 
Jersey  Wakefield,  with  its  small,  acutely  pointed  tip  and  very  firm, 
tender  flesh  of  high  quality,  and  the  Charleston  Wakefield,  which  is 
broader,  somewhat  flatter,  more  obtusely  pointed,  and  slightly  more 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  51 

angular  in  cross  section  than  the  Jersey  type.  The  varieties  which 
may  be  used  for  field  cultivation  depend  upon  the  purpose  for  which 
the  cabbage  is  intended.  If  for  sauerkraut  or  for  immediate  con- 
sumption, the  Flat  Dutch  type  from  American-grown  seed  is  exten- 
sively employed  in  the  eastern  part  of  the  United  States.  In  the 
irrigated  section  of  Colorado,  in  the  vicinity  of  Greeley,  where  cab- 
bage is  grown  for  sauerkraut,  a  variety  known  as  Scotch  Cross  is 
almost  universally  grown.  If  the  cabbage  is  intended  for  storage 
the  Danish  Ball  Head  from  imported  seed  is  almost  exclusively  used. 
— (F.  B.  255,  433;  Colo.  E.  S.  143;  Md.  Ag.  Col.  E.  S.  133;  Tex. 
E.  S.  52,  69;  Ga.  E.  S.  91;  Kans.  E.  S.  70;  S.  Dak.  E.  S.  91.) 

CALABASH.* 

The  increasing  popularity  of  calabash  pipes  made  from  the 
fruits  of  a  South  African  calabash,  or  gourd,  has  aroused  a  wide- 
spread interest  in  the  growing  of  this  vine. 

Calabash  pipes  made  from  imported  South  African  gourds  have 
been  the  fashion  in  England  for  some  time  and  are  now  coming  into 
vogue  in  America.  These  pipes  are  formed  from  the  crooked  necks 
of  a  large  gourd  (Lagenana  vulgaris)  belonging  to  the  well-known 
group  of  plants  which  includes  the  cucumber,  the  melons,  and  the 
squashes.  Pipes  made  from  the  imported  gourds  are  expensive, 
American  dealers  usually  charging  $3  to  $12  apiece  for  them.  They 
are  the  lightest  pipes  made  for  their  size,  are  graceful  in  shape,  color 
like  meerschaums,  and  are  delightful  smokers.  Unlike  the  cheap 
pipes  which  are  turned  out  by  machinery,  no  two  of  these  calabash 
pipes  are  alike.  In  this  lies  much  of  their  charm.  In  this,  likewise, 
lies  their  cost,  for,  unlike  the  great  mass  of  pipes  turned  out  by  ma- 
chinery, the  crook  of  the  calabash  varies  so  that  each  mouthpiece 
must  be  made  to  fit  it  and  each  lining  of  meerschaum  or  plaster  of 
Paris  must  be  specially  adapted.  In  our  land  of  labor-saving 
machinery  and  expensive  hand  labor  this  is  what  makes  the  pipes 
costly. 

The  vine  forms  a  very  satisfactory  cover  for  unsightly  brash 
heaps  or  fences,  though  its  rather  rank  odor  might  prove  objection- 
able if  used  for  an  arbor  too  near  the  dwelling.  To  grow  the  vine  for 
the  sake  of  its  gourds  is  where  the  chief  interest  lies,  however,  and  to 
do  this  well  it  should  not  be  trained  on  a  trellis,  but  allowed  to  trail 
over  the  ground.  If  the  fruits  are  allowed  to  lie  on  the  ground  they 
form  their  crooked  necks  quite  naturally  without  assistance,  and 
while  not  all  of  them  by  any  means  make  suitable  necks  for  pipes  a 
good  proportion  do.  It  seems  to  induce  a  more  perfect  neck  to  stand 
the  gourds  up  when  half  grown  so  that  they  rest  on  their  big  ends. 
Unless  care  is  exercised  in  doing  this  the  necks  snap  oft7,  for  they  are 
extremely  brittle  even  when  fully  grown.  It  is  onty  when  almost 
mature  that  they  become  hard  and  then  they  are  indeed  almost 
unbreakable. 

Much  could  doubtless  be  done  to  perfect  the  methods  of  culture, 
insuring  perhaps  a  greater  percentage  of  properly  crooked  necks  and 
more  perfect  surfaces.  It  could  not  be  seen  that  inheritance  plays 
any  material  part  in  this  matter  of  percentage  of  crooks.  If  left  to 

*  See  page  831,  for  Illustration. 


52  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

themselves  the  majority  will  crook  their  necks,  but  some  few  will 
remain  quite  straight,  and  this  on  the  same  vine  with  perfectly 
formed  crooks.  The  gourds  should  be  left  as  long  as  possible  on  the 
(vines  to  thoroughly  thicken  their  shells.  If  picked  green  the  shell 
will  be  no  thicker  than  stiff  cardboard  and  in  drying  it  is  very  liable 
to  crack.  Frost  will  injure  the  gourds  if  they  are  left  on  the  vines 
too  long.— (B.  P.  I.  Cir.  41.) 

CANTALOUPE. 

Cantaloupe  growing,  as  developed  since  its  origin  near  Rocky- 
ford,  Colorado,  in  1885,  requires  unusual  judgment  and  cultural  skill 
on  the  part  of  the  farmer.  Co-operative  organization  and  good  busi- 
ness management  are  also  essential,  for  only  by  these  means  can  the 
crop  be  properly  timed  and  prepared  for  shipment,  and  necessary 
arrangements  made  with  transportation  and  selling  agencies. 

Seed. — Seed  should  be  most  carefully  selected  with  reference  to 
flavor  and  appearance  of  the  fruit;  to  good  shipping  characters,  in- 
cluding small  cavities  and  heavy  netting;  and  to  a  tendency  to  pro- 
duce melons  of  standard  size.  Early  strains  are  desired  for  some 
situations ;  but  in  Arizona  rust  resistance  is  not  a  necessary  character 
as  this  class  of  diseases  is  little  to  be  feared  under  the  arid  conditions. 
Seed  should  be  purchased  only  from  most  reliable  sources.  Rocky- 
ford  growers  are  at  present  the  principal  means  of  supply. 

Soil. — Experience  has  proven  that  a  sandy  loam  is  the  soil  best 
suited  for  cantaloupes,  and  that  its  condition  of  tilth  and  the  avail- 
able fertility  are  the  prime  essentials  in  bringing  cantaloupes  to 
quick  maturity.  The  secret  of  getting  soil  in  that  ashy,  mellow  con- 
dition so  desirable  for  cantaloupes  is  largely  one  of  experience,  foi 
hardly  two  farms  can  be  handled  the  same.  In  general,  there  must 
be  moisture  in  the  soil  over  winter  to  get  the  disintegrating  effect  of 
frost,  and  plowing  should  not  be  done  until  the  ground  is  dry  enough 
to  pulverize  mellow.  Barnyard  manure  has  long  been  the  means  of 
supplying  fertility  to  force  cantaloupes  to  early  maturity.  Old  alfalfa 
ground  is  most  excellent  for  cantaloupe  culture.  Bermuda  sod 
plowed  up  and  exposed  to  the  sun  without  irrigation  the  preceding 
summer  makes  excellent  cantaloupe  ground,  the  intensive  cultivation 
necessary  serving  both  to  benefit  the  crop  and  to  restrain  this  formi- 
dable weed. 

Planting. — The  first  requisite  aside  from  moisture  for  a  good 
start  is  warm  weather,  as  cantaloupe  seed  cannot  germinate  when 
the  ground  is  cold  and  freezing ;  and  if  perchance  the  days  are  warm 
enough  to  germinate  the  seed  that  is  planted  in  March  or  April,  the 
cold  nights  that  are  sure  to  follow  will  offset  the  advantage  of  early 
planting.  If  there  is  a  secret  in  getting  early  cantaloupes  it  is  in 
growing  the  crop  from  start  to  finish  with  a  uniform  unchecked 
growth ;  the  cantaloupe  does  not  seem  to  have  the  power  to  rally  from 
a  check  in  growth  or  an  injury  from  an  insect  and  still  makes  its 
normal  development.  The  back-set  not  only  cuts  off  the  production 
of  early  cantaloupes  but  seriously  affects  the  size  and  quality  of  ^  the 
melon.  There  are  numerous  instances  where  unfavorable  conditions 
of  growth  have  produced  a  large  quantity  of  pony  melons,  while 


FIELD  'AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  53 

under  more  favorably  growing  conditions  the  same  seed  and  soil  have 
yielded  standard  sized  cantaloupes.  One  of  the  first  signs  of  promise 
for  early  cantaloupes  is  a  quick  germination  and  rapid  development 
of  large  cotyledons.  Seed  that  germinates  slowly  with  small,  yellow 
appearing  seed  leaves  has  never  made  early  cantaloupes. 

Irrigation. — Moisture  for  the  cantaloupe  hill  is  generally  sup- 
plied by  the  irrigation  furrow.  It  should  always  reach  the  seed  or 
plant  by  soaking  through  the  soil.  Irrigation  should  never  be 
allowed  to  over-soak  or  flood  the  ground,  as  the  soil  will  then  become 
hard  and  not  permit  a  good  growth.  The  relation  of  irrigation  to  an 
early  set  of  cantaloupes  is  a  somewhat  mooted  question.  There  are 
growers  who  argue  the  use  of  frequent  irrigations  during  the  setting 
period  to  secure  a  good  set,  and  there  are  others  who  prefer  to  keep 
the  vines  rather  dry  and  even  letting  them  show  the  need  of  water 
before  they  will  irrigate  during  the  setting  stage.  There  have  been 
results  that  seemed  to  support  both  theories,  yet  close  observation 
would  not  warrant  following  either  plan  to  an  extreme,  but  rather 
a  medium  course  of  supplying  enough  moisture  for  an  even,  healthy 
growth,  which  seems  to  be  the  essential  condition  all  the  way 
through.  An  excess  of  irrigation  during  the  hot  weather  in  July  will 
doubtless  tend  to  grow  vines  at  the  expense  of  early  fruit;  but  the 
most  disastrous  result  of  too  much  water — having  the  ground  so 
soaked  that  the  surface  is  nearly  all  wet,  and  affording  the  moist, 
dewy  condition  which  is  favorable  to  its  development — is  in  the 
development  of  rust.  The  rust  problem  is  a  serious  one  in  cantaloupe 
culture  in  Colorado.  Controlling  it  by  proper  application  of  irriga- 
tion is  only  a  palliative  measure,  yet  a  marked  contrast  is  often  seen 
in  two  portions  of  a  field ;  one  over-irrigated,  and  the  other  compara- 
tively dry,  aside  from  the  moisture  necessary  to  the  growth  of  the 
vines.  Rainy  weather  and  dewy  nights  afford  the  proper  conditions 
for  the  growth  of  the  rust  spore,  and  while  the  farmer  cannot  change 
climatic  conditions,  yet  by  careful  attention  in  the  application  of 
water,  having  the  rows  well  ditched,  and  with  adequate  waste  laterals 
to  prevent  over-soaking  and  flooding,  the  surface  of  the  ground  will 
dry  rapidly  after  a  rain  or  an  irrigation.  Thus  the  dews  at  night  will 
be  less,  and  in  a  measure  alleviate  the  effects  of  rust. — (U.  Ariz.  Cir. 
77;  Ag.  Col.  Colo.  62,  85,  95  and  108.) 

CAEDOON. 

The  cardoon  is  a  thistle-like  plant,  very  similar  in  appearance  to 
the  Globe  artichoke,  but  is  grown  as  an  annual.  The  seeds  are  sown 
in  early  spring  in  a  hotbed  or  cold  frame  and  the  plants  transplanted 
later  to  the  open  ground.  The  cardoon  should  be  planted  in  rows  3 
feet  apart  and  18  inches  apart  in  the  row  on  rich  soil,  where  it  can 
secure  plenty  of  moisture  and  make  rapid  growth.  Toward  autumn 
the  leaves  are  drawn  together  and  the  center  blanched  in  the  same 
manner  as  endive.  If  intended  for  winter  use,  the  leaves  are  not 
blanched  in  the  garden,  but  the  plants  are  lifted  with  considerable 
earth  adhering  to  the  roots  and  stored  closely  in  a  dark  pit  or  cellar 
to  blanch.  The  blanched  leaf  stems  are  used  for  making  salads, 
soups,  and  stews. — (F.  B.  255.) 


54  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

CARROT. 

The  culture  of  the  carrot  is  practically  the  same  as  the  parsnip, 
except  that  carrots  are  not  thinned  so  much  and  are  allowed  to  grow 
almost  as  thickly  as  planted.  Carrots  should  be  dug  in  the  autumn 
and  stored  the  same  as  parsnips  or  turnips.  Any  surplus  can  be  fed 
sparingly  to  horses,  mules  or  cattle.  The  roots  of  the  carrot  are  used 
at  all  times  of  the  year,  mostly  in  soups,  but  they  may  be  boiled  and 
served  with  butter  or  creamed.  Carrots  are  planted  in  rows  16  inches 
apart  and  the  plants  thinned  out  to  4  inches  in  the  row.  Chantenay 
is  an  excellent  table  carrot  of  medium  size  and  dark  orange  color, 
slightly  tapeiing  and  abruptly  terminating  with  a  short,  fine  tap- 
root. The  flesh  is  orange  colored,  brittle,  juicy  and  mild  flavored. 
What  it  lacks  in  size  it  makes  up  in  quality  and  good  shape.  Scarlet 
Intermediate,  somewhat  larger  than  Chantenay,  is  of  good  size  for 
table  use.  In  shape  more  tapering  and  with  a  longer  taproot.  It  is 
dark  orange  colored ;  flavor  and  quality  good.  Flesh  is  quite  brittle 
and  orange  colored  with  a  white  center.  To  these  two  are  added  two 
varieties  principally  grown  for  stock  feed,  similar  varieties  being  grown 
for  table  use  in  many  parts  of  Europe,  and  more  especially  those  of 
the  White  Belgian  variety.  Both  varieties  are  of  slender  shape,  1% 
to  2  inches  in  diameter,  holding  their  size  well,  although  averaging  12 
inches  in  length,  3  to  4  inches  of  which  grows  above  ground  and 
which  as  a  consequence  is  colored  light  green  on  the  outside.  White 
Belgian  is  the  sweeter  of  the  two,  and  while  the  flesh  is  somewhat 
coarse,  the  flavor  of  it,  when  well  stewed  and  mashed,  is  sweeter  and 
not  unlike  that  of  the  parsnip.  Victoria,  the  other  variety,  is  of  the 
same  texture,  fairly  sweet  and  with  a  more  pronounced  carrot  flavor, 
the  flesh  instead  of  white,  being  light  orange  colored.  This  vegetable 
can  be  grown  to  perfection  in  Porto  Rico  almost  any  time  of  the  year. 
It  prefers  a  rich  loam  and  grows  very  well  on  a  heavy  clay  which  is 
not  to  wet,  but  a  light  sandy  soil  is  not  well  adapted  to  it.  For  fer- 
tilizer, stable  manure  will  do  when  nothing  else  is  available,  but  a 
commercial  fertilizer,  rich  in  potash  and  phosphoric  acid,  is  much  to 
be  preferred  for  this  crop.— F.  B.  255,  295;  Mich.  E.  S.  20;  N.  C. 
E.  S.  132 ;  U.  Idaho  E.  S.  10 ;  P.  R.  A.  E.  S.  7.) 

CAULIFLOWER. 

This  plant  requires  a  very  rich,  moist  soil.  Land  that  will  pro- 
duce only  a  fair  crop  of  cabbage  is  unfit  for  cauliflower.  If  the  land 
is  very  rich  and  well  fertilized  it  may  be  reasonably  expected  that  the 
returns  from  the  crop  of  cauliflower  will  more  than  repay  the  cost  of 
putting  the  land  in  good  condition. 

Seed. — No  more  important  element  enters  into  the  success  of  the 
cauliflower  crop  than  the  quality  of  the  seed  and  to  the  seed  alone  is 
often  due  the  difference  between  success  and  failure,  profit  and  loss. 
The  best  seed  that  can  be  secured  is  the  cheapest  at  any  reasonable 
price,  and  it  should  always  be  obtained  from  a  well-known,  reputable 
seedsman. 

Seed-bed.— This  should  be  carefully  prepared.  The  soil  should 
be  enriched  with  a  liberal  application  of  commercial  fertilizer,  or 
thoroughly  decomposed  stable  manure.  After  the  fertilizer  is  applied 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  55 

it  should  be  thoroughly  worked  in  to  a  depth  of  three  or  four  inches. 
From  a  few  days  to  two  weeks  should  elapse  before  the  seed  is  sown 
for  there  is  great  danger  in  planting  seed  too  soon  after  applying 
commercial  fertilizer  as  the  seed  is  likely  to  be  destroyed  by  the  action 
of  the  mineral  substance  unless  it  has  been  dissolved  and  thoroughly 
incorporated  with  the  soil.  The  time  between  the  application  of  the 
fertilizer  and  the  sowing  of  the  seed  will  depend  upon  the  amount  of 
rainfall  and  it  is  often  better  to  wet  down  the  seed-bed  each  day  for 
four  or  five  days  before  planting  and  not  to  depend  upon  the  uncer- 
tain rainfall.  The  rows  should  be  about  three  inches  apart.  In  six  or 
seven  days  the  young  plants  should  begin  to  appear  and  the  ground 
between  the  drills  should  be  cultivated.  Do  not  allow  the  soil  to  dry 
out  as  the  cauliflower  plant  from  seed  to  head  should  never  be 
checked.  Neither  should  the  bed  be  kept  too  wet,  else  there  is  danger 
of  "damping  off."  The  bed  should  be  carefully  watched  and  if  the 
disease  does  break  out  it  may  be  checked  by  removing  the  diseased 
plants,  working  the  soil,  scattering  dry  sand  and  sulphur  along  the 
rows  and  withholding  water  until  the  surface  soii  becomes  dry.  It 
might  be  pointed  out  here  that  about  six  months  must  be  allowed 
from  the  sowing  of  the  seed  until  the  crop  matures. 

Transplanting. — The  plants  should  not  be  allowed  to  remain 
long  in  the  seed  rows.  If  left  too  long  they  will  soon  crowd  and 
become  weak  and  spindling.  When  they  have  reached  the  height  of 
one  inch,  they  should  be  pricked  off  and  set  in  another  portion  of  the 
bed.  They  may  be  set  in  rows  four  inches  apart  with  the  plants  one 
and  a  half  to  two  inches  apart  in  the  rows.  Here  they  should  remain 
until  ready  for  the  field.  If  care  has  been  exercised  all  the  way 
through,  the  plants  will  be  short,  stocky  and  vigorous.  By  the  time 
they  are  four  or  five  inches  high  or  when  the  leaves  have  lapped  they 
are  ready  for  the  field.  It  is  not  best  to  let  them  get  too  large,  because 
there  is  often  a  delay  of  a  few  days  in  order  to  obtain  good  climatic 
conditions  for  setting  out.  If  left  too  long  in  the  seed  bed,  greater  care 
must  be  exercised  in  transplanting,  else  the  plants  may  suffer  a  severe 
check  and  will  button  or  break  irregularly  instead  of  forming  smooth 
well  shaped  heads. 

Soils  and  Preparation. — Work  should  be  started  on  the  ground 
at  least  a  month  before  the  plants  are  set  out.  The  cauliflower  is  a 
deep  rooted  plant,  consequently  the  soil  should  be  prepared  deeply. 
It  is  not  advisable  to  turn  under  the  good  surface  soil  and  to  obviate 
this  ground  may  be  plowed  shallow  and  then  stirred  and  opened  with 
a  bull-tongue  to  a  depth  of  seven  or  eight  inches.  After  this  the  sur- 
face should  be  cultivated  to  a  depth  of  two  or  three  inches.  Give 
thorough  preparation  by  frequent  cultivation  before  the  fertilizer  is 
applied,  preparatory  to  setting  out  the  plants. 

Setting  Out. — It  is  best  that  the  plants  be  set  out  either  just 
before  or  immediately  after  a  rain,  but  if  this  can  not  be  done  they 
should  be  set  out  late  in  the  evening  and  watered,  giving  each  plant 
about  a  quart  of  water.  A  cloudy  day  is  much  preferable  to  a  clear 
one  and  if  the  day  on  which  the  plants  are  set  out  is  followed  by 
cloudy  weather,  so  much  the  better.  The  ground  should  be  leveled 


56  TEE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

or  smoothed  over,  for  which  purpose  a  roller  or  float  may  be  used. 
After  this  the  ground  may  be  marked  off.  Two  markers  should  be 
constructed,  one  with  the  teeth  three  feet  apart,  the  other  with  the 
teeth  two  feet  apart.  These  may  be  made  of  wood  after  the  pattern  of 
an  ordinary  garden  rake.  In  place  of  a  marker  a  line  may  be  used 
or  the  ground  may  be  checked  off  with  a  light  hand  plow.  Only  a 
limited  number  of  plants  should  be  removed  from  the  seed-bed  at  one 
time.  The  leaves  should  be  cut  back  about  one-half  or  one-third, 
using  for  the  purpose  a  large  pair  of  shears.  Sprinkle  the  plants  with 
water  as  soon  as  removed  from  the  bed,  place  in  a  shallow  box  or 
basket  and  keep  them  shaded  from  the  sun. 

Cultivation  and  Care. — The  field  should  be  frequently  cultivated 
and  the  ground  should  be  scarified  at  least  every  week  and  after  every 
rainfall.  The  bc:t  tool  for  cultivating  is  an  ordinary  cultivator  and  the 
ground  should  not  be  worked  to  a  greater  depth  than  two  and  one- 
half  or  three  inches.  This  will  preserve  a  surface  mulch  of  dry  earth 
and  prevent  loss  of  moisture  by  evaporation.  As  soon  as  the  heads 
commence  to  form  the  leaves  should  be  drawn  together  at  the  top  and 
loosely  tied  near  their  tips  with  a  piece  of  cord  or  twine.  Rafia  makes 
a  good  substitute  for  twine  and  is  preferable  because  there  is  less 
danger  of  cutting  the  leaves.  The  practice  of  breaking  down  the 
leaves  over  the  head  has  been  tried,  but  found  not  quite  so  satis- 
factory. If  the  heads  are  left  uncovered  they  become  yellow  through 
the  action  of  the  sun  and  rain  but  when  the  leaves  are  drawn  together 
and  tied,  they  bleach  out  pure  white,  and  curd-like. 

Gathering. — Cauliflower  may  be  cut  before  it  is  mature,  but  the 
flavor  is  not  so  well  developed  as  it  is  when  the  heads  are  full  grown. 
For  winter  shipment  heads  from  four  to  six  inches  in  diameter  are  of 
a  desirable  size  and  the  market  will  take  them  fully  as  well  or  better 
than  large  ones.  The  field  should  be  picked  over  at  least  every  two  or 
three  days  during  the  season,  though  heads  will  remain  in  good  con- 
dition for  nearly  a  week  if  the  weather  be  cold.  Examine  the  head  by 
separating  the  leaves  on  the  side.  As  soon  as  the  head  is  well  rounded 
up  in  the  center  and  developed  so  as  to  force  the  leaves  outward,  and 
assumes  a  grained  appearance,  it  will  be  found  to  be  fully  matured. 
The  heads  should  be  cut,  preferably,  when  dry.  If  moist  they  are 
likely  to  decay  in  transit.  The  best  time  of  day  is  the  afternoon  if 
they  are  intended  for  long  distance  shipment.  About  an  inch  of  stem 
should  be  left  on  the  head  and  three  rows  of  leaves.  After  cutting,  the 
heads  should  be  carefully  placed  in  a  wagon  and  carried  to  the  pack- 
ing house  or  on  dry  pleasant  days  packing  may  be  done  in  the  field. 

Packing. — The  package  recommended  for  general  use  is  the 
ordinary  lettuce  basket.  Before  packing,  the  leaves  should  be  cut 
back  to  stubs.  Each  head  should  be  carefully  wrapped  in  a  large 
sheet  of  white  glazed  paper.  The  baskets  should  be  packed  snug  and 
tight  without  bruising  the  heads,  and  only  those  of  uniform  size 
should  be  placed  in  each  basket.  Never  place  different  sizes  in  the 
same  package  and  always  discard  inferior  or  injured  heads ;  the  com- 
post heap  is  the  place  for  them.— (F.  B.  255 ;  Fla.  E.  S.  59 ;  Tex.  E.  S. 
67;  Cornell  U.  E.  S.  292.) 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  57 

CELEEIAC. 

This  vegetable,  which  is  also  known  as  turnip-rooted  celery,  or 
knot  celery,  is  closely  related  to  our  ordinary  celery,  being  indeed  a 
cultural  variety  of  the  same  original  plant  grown  under  conditions 
which  have  developed  the  root  rather  than  the  stalk.  In  Europe  it  is 
by  far  the  most  common  form  of  celery,  but  has  never  been  exten- 
sively cultivated  in  the  United  States,  though  it  is  found  in  the  larger 
markets.  The  roots  are  white  and  more  or  less  globular  in  shape, 
closely  resembling  turnips  in  appearance.  This  vegetable  deserves  to 
be  more  widely  known,  being  extremely  hardy  and  of  easy  cultiva- 
tion. It  is  mostly  used  for  flavoring  soups,  except  by  the  Germans 
who  use  it  in  the  same  manner  as  potatoes  for  potato  salad.  Planted 
7  or  8  inches  apart  and  3  feet  between  the  rows  it  will  yield  abun- 
dantly, and  succeed  best  where  celery  will.  The  edible  portion 
develops  into  a  bulbous  root  weighing  4  to  6  ounces  when  trimmed, 
and  these  bulbs  when  properly  packed  away  in  the  cellar  will  keep 
almost  until  spring.  Where  the  ground  but  slightly  freezes,  the 
plants  may  be  safely  left  unharvested  for  spring  use. — (F.  B.  255, 
§95;  Mich.  E.  S.  20.) 

CELERY. 

The  ideal  climatic  conditions  for  the  production  of  celery  are 
bright  sunshine,  pure  air,  cool  nights,  and  a  well-distributed  rainfall 
of  about  8  inches  during  the  growing  period  in  the  field  or  garden. 

Soils. — In  the  production  of  celery  for  domestic  use,  a  rich, 
mellow,  sandy  loam  will  give  the  best  results.  The  soil  of  the  seed 
bed  should  contain  plenty  of  leaf  mold  and  should  be  passed  through 
a  sieve  having  not  less  than  six  meshes  to  the  inch.  The  soil  of  the 
transplanting  bed  need  not  be  sifted  so  fine,  and  some  well-rotted 
barnyard  manure  should  replace  a  part  of  the  leaf  mold ;  in  other 
respects  it  should  be  the  same  as  that  of  the  seed  bed.  Any  fertile, 
well-drained  soil  will  grow  celery,  but  a  loose,  sandy  loam  is  prefer- 
able. If  nothing  but  clay  soil  is  available,  it  may  be  made  to  produce 
good  celery  by  the  liberal  application  of  well-rotf.ed  barnvard  manure. 
On  clay  soils  there  is  likely  to  be  injury  caused  by  the  soil  becoming 
washed  into  the  hearts  of  the  plants  while  they  are  yet  small. 

Fertilizers. — For  the  production  of  the  home  supply  of  celery 
there  is  no  fertilizer  that  is  so  satisfactory  as  well-rotted  barnyard 
manure.  In  many  localities  the  supply  of  manure  Is  limited,  and  it 
may  be  necessary  to  depend  almost  entirely  upon  commercial  fer- 
tilizers. If  fresh  stable  manure  is  used,  it  should  be  plowed  under  in 
the  autumn.  If  the  manure  is  well  rotted,  it  may  be  plowed  under 
early  in  the  spring  or  used  as  a  top-dressing  a  short  time  before  plant- 
ing in  order  to  bring  the  manure  to  the  surface.  From  10  to  20  tons 
of  manure  to  the  acre  should  be  applied  each  year  that  the  land  is 
planted  to  celery.  The  application  of  lime  will  improve  most  soils. 
Following  the  use  of  stable  manure  an  application  of  1,000  pounds 
of  ground  quicklime  as  a  top  dressing  will  be  beneficial.  Soils  that 
are  liable  to  leach  during  the  winter  can  be  held  by  planting  to  rye 
and  the  crop  turned  under  quite  early  in  the  spring.  When  applied  to 
clay  soils  the  lime  has  a  tendency  to  lighten  them,  and  sandy  soils  are 


58  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN. 

rendered  more  retentive  of  moisture  by  the  addition  of  lime.  An 
application  <  of  500  to  800  pounds  of  common  salt  to  the  acre  is  con- 
sidered desirable  by  some  growers.  Celery  will  take  up  a  limited 
quantity  of  salt,  and  its  flavor  is  improved  thereby. 

One  to  2  tons  of  high-grade  fertilizer  to  the  acre  may  be  profit- 
ably applied  on  most  soils  in  addition  to  the  stable  manure  and^lime. 
As  a  rule,  the  quick-acting  fertilizers  are  used,  and  a  mixture  suitable 
for  growing  celery  should  contain  about  6  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  5  per 
cent  of  available  phosphoric  acid,  and  10  per  cent  of  potash. 

Time  and  Method  of  Plowing. — As  a  rule  the  land  should  be 
plowed  several  weeks  before  planting.  At  the  North  it  is  desirable  to 
plow  the  celery  land  in  the  autumn  and  allow  the  soil  to  lie  exposed 
to  the  action  of  frost  during  the  winter.  At  the  South  it  will  be  neces- 
sary to  plow  but  a  short  time  before  planting.  The  plowing  should 
be  very  thorough,  and  in  most  cases  with  a  somewhat  heavier  plow 
than  that  generally  used  for  other  crops. 

Smoothing  and  Pulverizing. — A  few  days  before  the  land  is 
required  for  planting,  the  surface  should  be  cut  with  a  disk  or  cutting 
harrow,  followed  by  such  tools  as  are  necessary  to  pulverize  the  soil 
to  a  depth  of  5  or  6  inches.  Just  before  planting,  the  land  should 
either  be  rolled  or  gone  over  with  a  float,  or  drag,  made  by  nailing 
together  planks  or  scantlings,  in  order  to  secure  an  even  surface  for 
planting. 

Marking  Rows. — The  rows  in  which  the  celery  plants  are  to  be 
set  should  not  be  marked  until  a  short  time  before  planting,  in  order 
that  the  soil  may  remain  fresh.  A  marking  device  similar  to  the 
ordinary  corn  marker  may  be  used,  but  same  form  of  roller  with  a 
number  of  projecting  pegs  to  form  holes  in  which  to  set  the  plants  is 
desirable.  A  device  of  this  character  can  be  constructed  by  replacing 
the  wheel  of  an  ordinary  wheelbarrow  with  a  roller  having  a  series 
of  pegs. 

Selection  of  Seed. — The  first  and  most  important  consideration 
when  preparing  to  grow  a  crop  of  celery  is  the  securing  of  good  seed, 
not  merely  seed  of  which  a  large  percentage  will  germinate,  but  that 
having  strength  and  vigor  sufficient  to  give  the  seedling  a  good  start. 
As  the  seeds  of  celery  are  very  small,  it  is  necessary  that  only^a  small 
percentage  of  the  number  usually  sown  should  actually  grow  in  order 
to  secure  an  abundance  of  plants;  but  as  low  germination  and  the 
necessary  vigor  are  seldom  both  to  be  found  in  the  same  packet  of 
seed  that  seed  which  has  a  high  percentage  of  germination  is  prefer- 
able. 

Sowing  for  an  Early  Crop. — For  sowing  seed  during  the  early 
part  of  the  season,  the  plan  best  suited  to  the  requirements  of  the  far- 
mer or  amateur  grower  of  celery  is  to  secure  a  wooden  flat  or  tray 
about  16  by  24  inches  in  size  and  3  inches  deep,  with  several  small 
holes  in  the  bottom  for  drainage.  After  filling  with  sifted  soil  level 
it  off  even  with  the  top,  and  either  shake  down  the  soil  or-  press  ^it 
down  by  means  of  a  board  before  the  seeds  are  sown.  Either  sow  in 
drills  2  inches  apart  or  scatter  broadcast,  and  cover  the  seed  by 
sprinkling  through  a  fine  sieve  a  very  small  quantity  of  leaf  mold  or 


FIELD  'AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  59 

sand.  ^  This  tray  can  be  placed  in  the  window  of  a  moderately  warm 
room  in  the  dwelling,  and  the  soil  should  be  watered  by  sprinkling 
very  lightly  as  often  as  necessary  to  keep  the  surface  from  showing 
dryness,  but  the  soil  should  not  become  waterlogged. 

Sowing  for  a  Late  Crop. — The  method  now  in  use  by  most  large 
growers  is  to  prepare  a  tract  of  land  by  pulverizing  with  horse  tools 
and  then  raking  by  hand,  after  which  the  seed  is  sown  broadcast  by 
means  of  a  wheelbarrow  grass-seed  drill.  The  soil  is  sometimes 
pressed  down  with  a  plank  after  the  seeds  are  scattered,  but  some 
growers  maintain  that  there  is  a  decided  advantage  in  leaving  the  soil 
slightly  uneven,  as  the  seeds  fall  into  the  shaded  places  and  are 
protected  from  the  direct  rays  of  the  sun.  The  seed  will  become  suffi- 
ciently covered  by  rains  or  by  watering.  Should  more  than  20  per 
cent  of  the  seed  usually  sown  germinate,  it  is  necessary  to  thin  out 
to  prevent  overcrowding,  with  its  attendant  injury.  To  prevent  the 
surface  of  the  soil  becoming  too  dry,  it  may  be  necessary  to  partially 
shade  the  young  plants  during  the  warm  days  of  early  summer, 
but  the  shading  should  never  be  so  dense  as  to  cause  them  to  become 
"drawn." 

Transplanting. — In  case  the  grower  adopts  the  plan  of  transplant- 
ing twice,  the  seedlings  will  be  ready  for  the  first  handling  in  from 
four  to  six  weeks  from  the  time  the  seed  is  sown.  The  seedlings  may 
be  transplanted  to  trays  or  to  beds  in  the  open  ground.  This  trans- 
planting answers  two  purposes :  (1)  The  seedling  plant  of  celery  has 
a  straight  root,  or  taproot,  which  is  broken  in  transplanting,  causing 
a  large  mass  of  fibrous  roots  to  be  formed.  In  the  case  of  a  plant 
allowed  to  remain  in  the  seed  bed  until  planting-out  time  this  taproot 
has  gone  far  down  into  the  soil  and  the  plant  has  formed  very  few 
side  roots;  consequently  it  suffers  a  great  shock  in  the  process  of 
planting  in  the  field,  and  a  large  number  of  plants  will  need  to  be 
replaced.  (2)  When  transplanting  twice  is  practiced  there  is  no 
necessity  for  thinning,  and  a  more  uniform  lot  of  plants  is  obtained. 
Two  handlings  can  not  be  recommended  when  celery  is  grown  on  a 
large  scale,  as  the  cost  of  labor  is  too  great.  It  is  better  to  have  a 
surplus  of  plants  and  to  renew  those  that  fail. 

Watering. — When  the  seed  bed  is  prepared,  the  soil  of  whichi 
it  is  composed  should  contain  as  much  moisture  as  possible  and  yet  be 
in  good  condition  to  handle.  After  sowing  and  covering  the  seeds 
the  bed  should  be  sprinkled  lightly.  During  the  period  between  seed- 
ing and  the  appearance  of  the  plants  the  bed  should  be  watered  only 
as  often  as  it  shows  indications  of  dryness;  however,  the  surface 
should  never  become  dry.  During  the  first  few  days  a  moist  clotli 
may  be  spread  over  the  surface  of  the  seed  bed  in  order  to  conserve 
the  moisture,  but  this  covering  should  be  removed  before  the  seedlings 
begin  to  appear.  After  the  plants  are  up,  care  should  be  taken  not 
to  water  too  heavily,  as  the  seedlings  are  liable  to  "damp  off" ;  but  the 
ground  should  never  become  so  dry  as  to  check  their  growth.  Celery 
requires  the  most  water  while  making  its  greatest  growth,  which 
occurs  late  in  the  summer.  As  the  crop  approaches  maturity  the  watec 
should  be  applied  sparingly,  and  it  should  be  withheld  altogether  for 


60  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

some  time  before  blanching.  Among  the  methods  of  applying  the 
water,  the  most  simple  and  usually  the  most  desirable  practice,  espe- 
cially where  the  surface  of  the  soil  is  even,  is  to  run  the  water  along 
the  rows  by  means  of  small  furrows,  8  or  10  inches  distant  on  either 
side  of  the  row.  This  method  is  well  adapted  to  use  on  a  gentle  slope 
with  the  rows  running  up  and  down  the  incline.  When  the  water  is 
sprinkled  over  the  entire  surface  it  should  be  done  late  in  the  day, 
so  that  the  soil  may,  during  the  night,  absorb  the  moisture  and 
prevent  a  crust  being  formed,  as  would  be  the  case  were  the  water 
applied  under  the  direct  heat  of  the  sun. 

Growing  Without  Irrigation. — For  a  home  supply  of  celery  it  is 
often  possible  to  select  a  rather  moist  but  well-drained  piece  of  land 
whereon  it  may  be  grown  without  artificial  watering.  In  this  case 
the  plants  should  be  set  while  the  atmosphere  is  filled  with  moisture, 
preferably  between  gentle  showers,  and  the  moisture  afterwards  re- 
tained in  the  soil  by  frequent  shallow  cultivation  or  by  the  applica- 
tion of  a  mulch  around  the  plants.  This  method  can  not  be  followed 
in  climates  where  irrigation  is  necessary  for  the  production  of  crops, 
but  is  applicable  in  regions  that  have  an  ordinary  rainfall  during  the 
growing  season. 

Planting. — For  domestic  use,  where  plenty  of  land  is  available, 
it  will  be  found  most  economical  to  plant  in  single  or  double  rows 
4,  5  or  6  feet  apart,  with  the  plants  5  or  6  inches  apart  in  the  row.  If 
the  space  is  limited,  solid  beds  about  5  feet  wide  will  be  found  suit- 
able, with  the  plants  set  7  or  8  inches  apart  each  way.  By  planting 
in  rows  the  crop  may  be  worked  with  a  horse  cultivator  or  a  wheel 
hoe  and  the  banking  more  easily  done,  and  thus  the  cost  of  produc- 
tion is  lessened.  With  the  solid-bed  system  the  work  must  all  be 
done  by*  hand.  If  possible,  the  planting  should  be  done  when  the 
soil  is  rather  moist  and  the  atmospheric  conditions  suitable  to  the  sub- 
sistence of  the  plants  until  the  roots  can  again  furnish  sufficient 
moisture  to  supply  them.  The  bed  should  be  thoroughly  watered  a 
few  hours  before  the  plants  are  removed,  and  a  knife  or  trowel 
should  be  run  between  the  plants  so  that  they  may  be  lifted  with  a 
clump  of  earth  and  with  most  of  their  roots  attached. 

Mulching. — In  muck  soils  it  will  not  be  found  necessary  to  mulch 
the  ground  around  the  plants  after  setting,  but  some  kind  of  a  cover- 
ing is  desirable  on  sandy  and  clay  soils.  As  soon  as  the  plants  are  in 
position  and  before  any  water  is  applied,  cover  the  ground  for  a  dis- 
tance of  8  or  10  inches  on  either  side  with  any  finely  divided  material 
that  will  shade  the  top  of  the  soil  and  prevent  a  crust  being  formed 
after  watering;  half-rotted  manure  is  preferable  for  this,  as  it  aids 
the  growth  by  its  fertilizing  qualities.  Good  celery  can  be  grown  on 
clay  upland  with  but  one  watering — at  the  time  of  planting — pro- 
vided that  plenty  of  mulch  is  applied  as  soon  as  the  plants  are  set, 
The  roots  of  celery,  after  it  is  once  transplanted,  run  close  to  the  sur« 
face,  and  the  mulch  will  protect  them  from  the  heat  of  the  sun. 
Among  materials  that  may  be  used  for  a  mulch  may  be  mentioned 
pine  needles,  leaves  of  any  kind,  straw,  cornstalks  run  through  the 
cutter,  clippings  from  the  lawn,  etc.,  none  of  which,  however,  are  as 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  61 

good  as  barnyard  manure.  Have  the  material  to  be  used  as  a  mulch 
near  at  hand,  and  as  the  plants  are  set  cover  the  soil  around  them  to 
a  depth  of  2  inches,  bringing  the  mulching  material  up  close  to  the 
plant,  but  being  careful  to  allow  none  to  get  into  the  heart.  Apply 
the  mulch  before  watering,  if  possible. 

Where  celery  is  planted  in  single  rows  and  mulched  it  will  only 
be  necessary  to  maintain  shallow  cultivation  between  the  rows,  not 
allowing  the  cultivator  teeth  to  come  nearer  the  plants  than  the  edge 
of  the  mulch.  Where  no  mulch  is  used  the  cultivation  may  be  car- 
ried a  little  closer  to  the  plants,  but  should  be  very  shallow,  and  at  no 
time  should  deep  cultivation  be  practiced,  as  the  roots  are  to  be  found 
very  near  the  surface  of  the  soil.  If  a  mulch  is  used  no  hand  cultiva- 
tion will  be  required,  either  along  the  side  or  between  the  plants  in 
the  row,  except  to  pull  any  weeds  that  may  spring  up.  Where  no 
mulch  is  used  it  will  be  necessary  lightly  to  stir  the  surface  with  a 
wheel  hoe  or  iron  rake,  to  prevent  a  crust  being  formed  after  each 
rain  or  watering.  Keep  the  surface  of  the  soil  smooth  and  in  no  case 
allow  lumps  of  earth  to  remain  near  the  plants. 

Blanching. — In  its  original  wild  state  the  stems  of  celery  are 
tough,  full  of  woody  strands,  of  a  rank  flavor,  and  green  in  color, 
being  similar  to  the  outside  stems  or  trimmings  of  our  present  varie- 
ties. The  object  of  blanching  is  to  secure  leafstalks  free  from  woody 
strands,  crisp  and  tender,  and  without  the  rank  flavor  found  in  those 
that  are  green.  Of  the  cultivated  plant  there  are  two  classes  of  varie- 
ties, the  large-growing,  or  gmnt,  and  the  dwarf  sorts.  These  are 
again  divided  into  those  which  must  be  blanched  by  excluding  all 
the  light  and  those  which  are  in  a  measure  self-blanching.  Or  the 
former  the  Giant  Pascal  variety  is  a  type,  and  of  the  latter  the  Golden 
Self-Blanching  variety  is  a  good  illustration. 

Blanching  is  accomplished  by  the  same  general  method  that  is 
employed  for  destroying  the  coloring  matter  in  any  plant  tissue, 
that  is,  by  excluding  the  light  and  allowing  the  growth  to  proceed 
in  the  dark.  The  particular  method  to  be  adopted  must  be  deter- 
mined largely  by  the  time  when  the  crop  is  to  be  used.  If  for  early 
use  or  marketing,  the  blanching  must  be  completed  where  the  plants 
are  grown ;  but  if  the  celery  be  for  winter  use  the  blanching  may  take 
place  after  the  crop  has  been  removed  from  the  field  and  placed  in 
storage.  In  fact,  it  is  best  to  blanch  as  little  as  possible  before  stor- 
ing when  the  product  is  to  be  kept  until  late,  as  the  keeping  qualities 
are  better  while  it  is  unblanched.  When  planting  for  early  use  it  is 
necessary  to  choose  one  of  the  self-blanching  varieties,  such  as  may 
be  conveniently  blanched  by  the  use  of  boards  or  other  similar 
means. 

For  early  blanching  on  a  small  scale,  such  as  would  be  employed 
on  the  farm  or  in  the  garden  of  the  amateur  horticulturist,  there  are 
several  methods.  One  of  the  most  common  is  by  means  of  boards 
placed  on  edge  along  each  side  of  the  row. 

After  the  boards  are  in  position  it  is  a  good  plan  to  run  a  celery 
hiller  between  the  rows  and  to  throw  a  little  soil  against  the  lower 


62  THE  VEGETABLE  GAJIDElt 

edges  of  the  boards  to  close  any  openings  that  may  result  from  the 
uneven  surface  of  the  soil. 

Two  or  three  weeks'  time  will  be  required  to  complete  the 
blanching  of  the  early  varieties,  and  the  boards  must  be  kept  in 
position  until  the  crop  is  removed  from  the  ground,  after  which  they 
may  be  used  again  two  or  three  times  during  the  season.  If  the 
celery  is  allowed  to  remain  in  the  boards  too  long  after  it  has  reached 
a  marketable  stage,  it  loses  in  weight  and  flavor  and  is  liable  to  be 
injured  or  even  destroyed  by  the  attacks  of  blight.  This  is  especially 
true  during  the  earlier  part  of  the  season,  when  the  weather  is  warm. 
At  the  end  of  the  season  the  boards  should  be  piled  flat,  with  strips 
inserted  at  every  fourth  or  fifth  course,  and  the  whole  pile  roofed 
over  to  shed  off  rain ;  treated  in  this  manner  they  will  last  from  ten 
to  twelve  years. 

Perhaps  the  most  satisfactory  way  of  blanching  early  celery  on 
a  small  scale  is  by  means  of  ordinary  farm  drain  tiles  of  about  4 
inches  inside  diameter,  placed  over  the  plants  after  they  have  become 
almost  fully  grown.  To  facilitate  the  work  of  placing  the  tiles  over 
the  plants,  some  of  the  outside  leaves  should  be  pulled  away  and  the 
main  part  of  the  plant  loosely  tied  together  by  means  of  a  soft  string, 
or,  better,  with  what  is  known  as  paper  twine,  being  a  string  made  by 
twisting  a  strip  of  soft  paper.  This  string  will  lose  its  strength  as 
soon  as  it  becomes  wet,  and  will  offer  no  resistance  to  the  further 
growth  of  the  plant.  If  the  common,  unglazed  tiles  are  used  the 
evaporation  from  their  surface  has  a  tendency  to  keep  the  plant  cool 
during  the  heat  of  the  day,  and  a  very  crisp  and  tender  product  is 
the  result.  This  method  of  blanching  is  desirable  also  on  account 
of  its  cleanliness,  as  celery  treated  in  this  way  will  need  very  little 
washing  before  marketing. 

The  most  common  method  for  blanching  celery  on  a  small  scale 
is  that  of  banking  with  soil,  and  it  is  by  this  means  that  the  finest 
flavor  can  be  obtained.  Where  the  plants  are  set  in  single  rows  the 
soil  can  often  be  partially  thrown  up  by  means  of  a  plow,  or,  better, 
by  a  celery  hiller.  Before  the  plow  or  banking  machine  is  used  a 
small  quantity  of  dirt  must  be  placed  around  the  plants  by  hand  to 
hold  them  in  position  while  the  earth  is  being  thrown  around  them. 
This  may  also  be  accomplished  by  tying  up  the  plants  with  paper 
twine,  as  previously  recommended  for  use  in  connection  with  tiles. 

Storing. — The  plan  usually  adopted  where  but  a  small  quantity 
of  celery  is  to  be  stored  for  winter  use  is  to  bank  up  with  earth  and 
cover  the  plants  where  grown.  Place  enough  earth  around  the  base 
of  the  plants  to  hold  them  in  good  form,  and  then  allow  them  to 
remain  without  any  further  banking  as  long  as  there  is  not  danger 
of  a  hard  frost.  Celery  may  be  safely  stored  in  cellars  provided  the 
temperature  is  kept  low  and  plenty  of  ventilation  maintained.  The 
warmth  and  dampness  of  the  ordinary  cellar  have  a  tendency  to 
cause  the  celery  to  decay,  but  these  conditions  can  frequently  be 
overcome.  Celery  will  readily  absorb  any  odor  that  may  be  present 
in  the  atmosphere  of  the  storage  place,  and  care  should  be  taken  to 
provide  sanitary  conditions.  When  storing  in  a  cellar,  the  plants 


FIELD  'AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  63 

should  have  most  of  their  roots  attached,  and  a  bed  of  moist  sand  in 
which  to  set  them  should  be  provided. 

Preparing  Celery  for  Market. — In  preparing  it  from  the  rows 
where  grown,  it  is  not  necessary  to  remove  the  entire  root  from  the 
earth,  but  it  may  be  cut  off  just  below  the  surface  of  the  soil  by  means 
of  a  stiff  knife.  Remove  the  outside  leaves  and  trim  the  root  evenly, 
pack  in  boxes,  and  load  on  the  wagon  for  removal  to  the  washing 
house.  The  blanching  boards  should  not  be  removed  till  necessary, 
and  the  trimmed  celery  must  not  be  allowed  to  lie  exposed  to  the  sun 
or  wind  for  any  length  of  time.  It  is  well  also  to  have  a  piece  of 
canvas  to  protect  the  celery  while  it  is  on  the  wagon  on  the  way  to 
the  washing  house.  In  marketing  from  the  trenches  the  process  is 
practically  the  same  as  from  the  rows,  except  that  the  celery  is 
already  loosened  from  the  soil  and  the  roots  can  be  removed  more 
easily.  Upon  reaching  the  washing  room  the  celery  is  placed  upon 
a  rack  consisting  of  wooden  slats  over  a  large  trough  and  subjected 
to  a  spray  of  cold  T/ater  to  cool  it  and  to  remove  the  adhering  soil. 
After  washing,  it  is  allowed  to  drain ;  then  it  is  tied  in  bunches  of  12 
or  more  plants  each,  according  to  the  size.  The  bunches  are  packed 
6  in  a  box  for  first-grade  celery  and  8  or  9  for  second  or  third  grades. 
These  boxes  should  be  practically  air-tight,  and  a  lining  of  paper 
should  be  placed  in  them  before  packing  the  celery,  or  each  bunch 
should  be  wrapped  separately.  The  celery  should  be  nearly  dry 
before  it  is  placed  in  the  boxes,  and  throughout  the  entire  handling 
must  be  kept  as  cool  as  possible. 

Sanitary  Conditions. — It  is  essential  that  the  celery  should  be 
washed  in  pure  water  to  prevent  the  transmission  of  disease  germs. 
Any  germ,  such  as  that  producing  typhoid  fever,  which  is  found  in 
contaminated  water,  is  readily  carried  to  the  digestive  system  of  the 
consumer,  and  may  or  may  not  produce  an  attack  of  the  disease, 
according  to  the  strength  of  the  person  to  resist  it.  The  washhouse 
and  its  surroundings  should  be  kept  clean  and  free  from  any  decom- 
posing materials.  Shippers  and  dealers  alike  lose  sight  of  the  fact 
that  the  edible  portion  of  celery  is  constantly  being  exposed  to  the 
contaminating  effects  of  dirty  wagons,  unclean  cars,  and  dusty 
markets.  Many  persons  have  discontinued  the  use  of  celery  on 
account  of  the  unclean  condition  in  which  it  is  served.  This  state- 
ment holds  good  for  all  vegetables  that  are  served  in  the  raw  state, 
but  it  is  especially  applicable  to  celery. 

Estimates  of  Returns. — Anyone  contemplating  making  a  start 
in  celery  growing  will  do  well  to  first  investigate  the  market  pros- 
pects, and  unless  satisfactory  shipping  arrangements  can  be  made 
beforehand  the  crop  should  be  planted  only  on  a  small  scale  for  one 
or  two  years,  until  a  local  trade  can  be  established.  It  is  fair  to 
estimate  a  return  of  1,500  dozen  from  1  acre,  and  this  should  bring 
25  cents  per  dozen,  at  the  lowest  average  estimate;  this  will  yield  a 
gross  income  of  $375  to  the  acre,  leaving  a  net  balance  of  $125  to 
cover  the  interest  on  the  investment  and  the  profit.  As  a  matter  of 
fact,  the  growers  who  are  making  a  success  of  celery  raising — and 
many  are  doing  so — receive  a  net  profit  of  $100  an  acre  over  and 


64  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

above  the  interest  on  the  investment.  On  the  other  hand,  hundreds 
of  acres  are  grown  annually  which  do  not  much  more  than  pay 
expenses,  but  this  is  due  to  the  fact  that  the  soil  has  become  exhausted 
and  the  product  is  consequently  undersized  and  inferior. — (F.  B. 
255,  282;  Cornell  E.  S.  132;  Colo.  E.  S.  144.) 

CETEWAYO,   OR  ZULU,   POTATOES. 

The  Cetewayo,  or  Zulu,  potato,  a  wild  variety  of  Solanum 
tuber osum  found  in  Africa,  is  sometimes  grown  as  a  garden  vegetable 
for  its  flavor  and  novelty.  It  has  practically  the  same  percentage 
composition  as  the  ordinary  potato.  ^  When  cooked,  the  flesh  ia 
purple  in  color,  but  when  brought  in  contact  with  vinegar,  as  in 
salads,  it  turns  red.— (F.  B.  295.) 

THE  CHAYOTE. 

The  chayote  suggests  the  cucumber  rather  than  any  other  of  the 
cultivated  plants  of  the  same  family,  but  is  a  larger  and  more  vigor- 
ous plant,  climbing  widely  by  means  of  numerous  branched  tendrils. 
When  grown  under  ordinary  garden  conditions  the  cultural  require- 
ments of  the  chayote  may  be  said  to  be  two  in  tumber:  (1)  A  some- 
what sheltered  situation  and  (2)  something  to  climb  upon.  While 
the  vine  will  not  refuse  to  grow  without  these  advantages,  the  results 
will  not  be  satisfactory.  Like  many  climbing  plants,  the  chayote  is 
very  susceptible  to  injury  from  the  wind,  while,  unlike  many  Cucur- 
bitaceae,  it  does  not  seem  to  take  kindly  to  creeping  upon  the  ground, 
at  least  in  the  Tropics.  In  the  different  p^arts  of  the  world  the  chayote 
has  been  found  to  grow  upon  a  great  variety  of  soils,  though  it  is  gen- 
erally considered  to  thrive  best  in  a  loose  sandy  or  loamy  substratum, 
providing  sufficient  humus  or  other  fertilizing  material  be  at  hand. 
Although  it  has  been  found  possible  to  secure  plants  from  the  seed 
when  planted  alone,  or  even  from  the  embryo  when  carefully  ex- 
tracted from  its  seed  coats,  it  is  the  universal  practice  to  plant  the 
entire  fruit.  The  fruit  should  be  gathered  before  fully  matured,  be- 
cause of  the  tendency  to  germinate.  It  is  like  the  cucumber,  edible 
at  any  stage  of  growth,  and  may  be  picked  when  large  enough.  The 
chayote  is  a  good  shipper  and  may  be  shipped  in  bulk  in  vegetable 
crates,  wrapped  and  well  packed ;  cold  storage  will  not  be  necessary. 
— (Dept.  Ag.,  Div.  of  Botany  28;  P.  Rico  A.  E.  S.  7). 

CHERVIL. 

Under  the  name  of  chervil  two  distinct  plants,  known  as  salad 
chervil  and  the  turnip-rooted  chervil,  are  cultivated.  The  seeds  of 
the  salad  chervil  are  sown  in  spring  and  the  crop  will  thrive  on  any 
good  garden  soil.  The  seeds  of  the  turnip-rooted  chervil  should  be 
sown  in  the  early  autumn,  but  they  will  not  germinate  until  the  fol- 
lowing spring.  The  edible  part  of  this  plant  is  the  root,  which  some- 
what resembles  the  carrot  and  is  used  in  the  same  manner.  The  leaves 
are  used  the  same  as  parsley  for  garnishing  and  in  flavoring  soups. — 
(F.  B.  255.) 

CHICORY. 

Chicory  is  grown  for  two  or  three  purposes.  The  root  of  this 
plant  is  the  common  adulterant  of  coffee,  and  large  quantities  are 
used  for  this  purpose.  The  commercial  growing  of  chicory  is  con- 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  65 

fined  to  a  few  sections,  as  the  crop  will  not  thrive  on  every  kind  of 
soil.  A  deep,  rich  loam,  without  excessive  amounts  of  clay  or  sand,  ig 
desirable,  and  soil  that  is  not  too  rich  in  nitrogenous  matter  is  best 
suited  to  the  production  of  roots.  The  roots  are  frequently  placed  in 
soil  under  a  greenhouse  bench  or  in  a  warm  cellar  and  covered  with 
a  foot  or  more  of  straw,  or  with  a  light  covering  of  straw  and  then 
several  inches  of  warm  manure.  Under  this  covering  the  leaves  will 
be  formed  in  a  solid  head,  which  is  known  on  the  market  as  witloof. 
Chicory  has  run  wild  in  some  parts  of  the  country  and  is  considered 
a  bad  weed.  The  handsome  blue  flowers,  which  are  borne  the  second 
season,  are  very  attractive.  As  a  pot  herb  chicory  is  used  like  spin- 
ach, but  the  leaves  should  be  boiled  in  two  waters  to  remove  the  bit- 
ter taste.  As  a  salad  the  roots  are  dug  in  the  autumn  and  planted  in 
cellars  or  under  a  greenhouse  bench,  where  they  produce  an  abund- 
ance of  blanched  leaves,  which  are  eaten  raw.  The  blanched  leaves 
are  also  boiled  and  used  as  greens. — (F.  B.  255;  U.  Idaho  E.  S.  10.) 

CHILE. 

The  chile  is  used  in  many  different  ways  and  it  is  quite  an  im- 
portant article  of  food  among  the  Spanish  speaking  population  in  the 
Southwest  and  in  Mexico.  It  is  eaten  both  in  the  green  and  ripe 
state.  It  may  be  grown  on  ridges  or  in  level  plats.  The  former 
method  is  the  more  common  in  New  Mexico.  In  the  spring  after  the 
ground  has  been  plowed  and  leveled  (the  plowing  of  the  land  can  be 
done  in  the  fall  or  winter)  and  just  a  little  before  planting  the  ridges 
are  made.  These  ridges  may  vary  in  height  from  8  to  12  inches.  It 
is  better  to  irrigate  the  ridges  before  planting,  though  this  is  not 
always  done.  The  object  of  irrigating  before  planting  is  to  get  the 
water  mark  on  the  side  of  the  ridges  and  to  settle  the  newly  plowed 
soil  somewhat.  As  soon  as  the  soil  is  dry  enough  so  it  can  be  worked, 
which  is  generally  from  four  to  seven  days,  the  seed  is  planted  usually 
on  one  side  of  the  ridge  and  just  above  the  water  mark.  The  seed  is 
planted  by  hand  in  hills  about  every  two  feet  in  the  row.  The  chile 
does  not  stand  freezing  weather,  though  it  will  stand  a  little  more  cold 
than  tomatoes.  For  the  convenience  of  intending  chile  growers  the 
following  table  which  gives  the  number  of  hills  per  acre  at  different 
distances  has  been  prepared: 


Number  of 
Hills  per  Acre. 


Distance.  Hills  per  Acre. 

3V2  feet  between  rows  x  2      feet  in  the  row 6222 

3V2  feet  between  rows  x  2%  feet  in  the  row 4978 

4      feet  between  rows  x  2      feet  in  the  row 5445 

4      feet  between  rows  x  21/£  feet  in  the  row 4356 

Planting. — The  seed  is  planted  on  the  side  of  the  ridge,  when 
the  ridge  method  is  practiced.  The  southern  exposure  of  the  ridge  is 
always  preferable  since  this  is  usually  warmer  and  the  germination, 
other  factors  being  uniform,  is  quicker.  If  level  culture  is  practiced 
there  is  no  choice  of  exposure.  Whatever  method  of  planting  is  fol- 
lowed care  should  be  taken  not  to  bury  the  seed  too  deeply.  As  a  gen- 
eral thing  the  seed  should  not  be  deeper  than  three-fourths  of  an 
inch  to  an  inch  and  a  half.  Shallower  planting,  if  the  moisture  is 
kept  normal,  will  give  quicker  and  better  germination.  More  seed  is 


66  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

required  per  acre  when  the  planting  is  done  by  hand  on  the  ridges 
than  when  it  is  drilled  with  a  garden  drill  in  plats. 

Thinning. — Chile  started  from  seed  planted  in  the  field  must  be 
thinned  to  one  or  three  plants  to  the  hill.  When  the  chile  has  been 
thinned  out  properly  the  plant  or  plants  in  the  hill  branch  out  con- 
siderably and  produce  a  heavier  and  better  crop.  If  too  many  plants 
are  left  to  the  hill  there  is  a  marked  tendency  for  the  plants  to  grow 
too  tall  and  more  or  less  top  heavy.  The  chile  is  thinned  out  when 
about  3  to  5  inches  high.  If  a  good  germination  takes  place  it  is 
more  difficult  to  thin  the  chile,  because  there  are  more  small  plants 
to  the  hill  to  be  pulled  put.  Care  should  be  had  in  selecting  the 
strongest  plants  in  the  hill  and  in  injuring  as  little  as  possible  the 
roots  of  those  which  remain.  While  the  common  way  of  growing 
chile  is  to  plant  the  seed  out  in  the  field  in  the  spring,  it  can  also  be 
grown  by  starting  the  plants  in  cold  frames  early  in  the  season  and 
transplanting  to  the  field  as  soon  as  danger  of  frost  is  over. 

Irrigation. — After  the  irrigations  to  get  the  crop  started  have 
been  given,  the  frequency  of  the  subsequent  irrigations  depends 
upon  the  weather  and  soil  conditions,  and  for  that  reason  no  specific 
statement  can  be  made  just  when  and  how  often  the  chile  should  be 
irrigated.  One  thing,  however,  is  important  to  keep^  in  mind,  and 
that  is  that  the  chile  plant  keeps  bearing  as  long  as  it  is  growing.  If 
the  growth  should  be  checked  by  the  lack  'of  irrigation  the  plant  stops 
bearing  and  the  blossoms  and  the  very  small  pods  are  likely  to  drop 
off.  The  grower  himself  should  study  his  local  conditions  and  de- 
cide for  himself  when  and  how  much  to  irrigate.  While  the  chile 
plant  resists  considerable  drought,  at  the  same  time,  it  should  not  be 
allowed  to  suffer  from  the  lack  of  irrigation.  When  the  chile  is 
grown  on  ridges  the  space  between  the  ridges  should  be  allowed  to  fill 
with  water  almost  up  to  the  plant.  If  the  water  is  simply  turned  in 
and  allowed  to  rush  down  the  furrow  to  the  other  end  the  ridges  will 
remain  practically  dry,  necessitating  frequent  irrigations  to  keep  the 
plants  from  suffering.  In  irrigating  the  chile  on  ridges  always  aim 
to  hold  the  water  long  enough  in  the  furrow  for  the  ridges  to  get 
fairly  well  soaked  through.  In  the  level  plat  the  irrigation  is  more 
simple  and  the  soil  around  each  hill  gets  wet  sufficiently  while  the 
water  is  running  down  to  the  end  of  the  plat.  When  the  plats  are 
quite  long  and  are  made  up  of  a  series  of  squares  as  soon  as  each 
square  is  filled  with  water  the  border,  dividing  that  square  from  the 
next  one,  is  cut  and  the  water  rushes  into  the  next  square  which  is 
treated  the  same  as  the  one  before. — (N.  Mex.  Col.  Ag.  and  Mech. 
Arts  67.) 

CHIVE. 

This  is  a  small  onion-like  plant  having  flat,  hollow  leaves  which 
are  used  for  flavoring  soups.  The  chive  rarely  forms  seeds,  and  it  is 
propagated  by  the  bulbs,  which  grow  in  clusters.  The  leaves  may  be 
cut  freely  and  are  soon  replaced  by  others. — (F.  B.  255;  S.  Dak. 
E.  S.  68.) 

CITRON. 

The  citron  is  a  type  of  watermelon  with  solid  flesh  which  is  used 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  67 

for  preserves  and  sweet  pickles.  The  rind  of  the  watermelon  is  fre- 
quently substituted  for  citron.  The  cultivation  of  the  citron  is  the 
same  as  for  the  watermelon.— (F.  B.  255;  U.  Idaho  E.  S.  10.) 

COLLARDS. 

The  culture  and  uses  of  collards  are  the  same  as  for  cabbage  and 
kale.  Collards  withstand  the  heat  better  than  either  cabbage  or  kale, 
and  a  type  known  as  Georgia  collards  is  highly  esteemed  in  the 
Southern  States.  Collards  do  not  form  a  true  head,  but  instead  a 
loose  rosette  of  leaves,  which,  when  blanched,  are  very  tender  and 
of  delicate  flavor.— (F.  B.  255 ;  U.  Idaho  E.  S.  10 ;  P.  Rico  A.  E.  S.  7.) 

CORN  SALAD. 

Corn  salad  is  also  known  as  lamb's-lettuce  and  fetticus.  Sow  the 
seed  during  the  early  spring  in  drills  14  to  18  inches  apart  and  culti- 
vate the  same  as  for  lettuce  or  mustard.  For  an  extra  early  crop  the 
seed  may  be  planted  during  the  autumn  and  the  plants  covered 
lightly  during  the  winter.  In  the  Southern  States  the  covering  will 
not  be  necessary  and  the  plants  will  be  ready  for  use  during  February 
and  March.  The  leaves  are  frequently  used  in  their  natural  green 
state,  but  they  may  be  blanched  by  covering  the  rows  with  anything 
that  will  exclude  the  light.  Corn  salad  is  used  as  a  salad  in  place  of 
lettuce,  or  mixed  with  lettuce  or  water  cress.  The  flavor  of  corn  salad 
is  very  mild,  and  it  is  improved  by  mixing  with  some  other  salad 
plant  for  use.  It  is  also  boiled  with  mustard  for  greens. — (F.  B.  255.) 

CRESS. 

Under  the  name  of  cress  there  are  two  forms,  the  water  cress  and 
the  upland  cress.  The  upland  cress,  sometimes  called  peppergrass, 
is  easily  grown  from  seed  sown  in  drills  a  foot  apart.  As  the  plants 
last  but  a  short  time,  it  will  be  necessary  to  make  a  sowing  every  few 
days  if  a  continuous  supply  is  desired. 

"Water  cress  can  be  grown  all  the  year  in  small  open  ditches  con- 
taining running  spring  water.  It  is  best  and  most  easily  produced 
in  water  from  rather  warm  springs  in  limestone  regions.  A  sufficient 
supply  for  family  use  can  be  grown  in  a  small  spring-fed  brook,  and 
the  plants  may  be  started  either  from  small  pieces  of  plants  or  from 
seed.  Cress  is  used  in  salads,  to  which  it  imparts  a  pleasant  pungency. 
— (F.  B.  255;  U.  Idaho  E.  S.  10;  P.  Rico  A.  E.  S.  7.) 

CUCUMBERS. 

Soil — The  soil  best  adapted  to  the  cultivation  of  cucumbers  in 
the  open  is  a  light  sandy  loam,  one  which,  responds  quickly  to  tem- 
perature and  fertilizer.  Such  soils  are  prepared  early  in  the  season 
and  thrown  into  gentle  undulations,  so  as  to  produce  slight  ridges 
upon  which  to  plant  the  seed  to  insure  good  surface  drainage. 

Fertilizers. — The  soil  for  cucumbers  should  be  made  very  rich  by 
the  annual  application  of  heavy  dressings  of  stable  manure  to  be 
incorporated  with  the  soil.  During  the  time  it  is  not  occupied  by 
cucumbers  or  lettuce,  cowpeas  are  frequently  grown  upon  the  area 
and  turned  under  prior  to  planting  a  fall  crop  of  lettuce.  In  addi- 
tion to  this,  liberal  applications  of  a  fertilizer  carrying  a  considerable 
percentage  of  nitrogen  are  employed. 

Planting. — There  are  almost  as  many  methods  of  planting 


68  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

cucumbers  as  there  are  growers.  Some  plant  in  hills  the  standard 
distance  of  6  feet  apart  each  way ;  others  plant  in  hills  6  feet  apart 
in  one  direction  and  2  or  3  feet  apart  in  the  row,  -while  others  plant 
in  drills  or  broad  belts  6  feet  apart  and  chop  out  the  plants  to  stand 
about  a  foot  apart  in  the  row  after  all  danger  from  insect  depreda- 
tion has  ceased.  The  methods  which  seem  most  economical  under 
the  conditions  at  hand  will  of  course  be  adopted  by  the  grower.  In 
outdoor  culture  the  cucumber  is  frequently  used  as  a  companion  crop 
to  other  crops,  like  beans.  Beans  being  of  rapid  growth  come  on 
quickly  and  form  a  partial  protection  or  wind-break  for  the  young 
cucumber  plants.  When  arranged  in  this  way,  cucumbers  are  planted 
in  drills  or  in  hills  6  feet  apart  and  a  row  of  beans  is  placed  between 
two  rows  of  cucumbers,  a  method  which  insures  a  very  complete  and 
satisfactory  use  of  the  ground.  The  _quick  maturity  of  the  beans 
allows  them  to  be  harvested  and  entirely  removed  from  the  area 
before  it  is  required  for  the  cucumbers. 

Harvesting. — Cucumbers  intended  for  pickling  purposes  are 
harvested  when  they  have  attained  a  length  of  from  2%  to  5  inches. 
Because  such  cucumbers  are  bought  by  weight  it  wall  readily  be  seen 
that  the  small-sized  pickles  are  less  profitable  to  the  grower  than  the 
larger  ones,  and  in  order  to  secure  them  before  they  have  attained 
an  unsalable  size  it  is  necessary  that  the  picking  be  repeated  at  fre- 
quent intervals,  as  cucumbers  grow  rapidly  and  a  delay  of  twenty- 
four  to  forty-eight  hours  in  harvesting  would  render  many  of  them 
unsalable.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to  have  regular  intervals  to 
harvest  certain  areas  of  the  patch  and  to  continue  this  routine 
throughout  the  bearing  season.  Another  point  which  is  of  prime 
importance  in  the  management  of  the  cucumber  patch  is  that  none 
of  the  fruits  be  allowed  to  come  to  maturity.  The  ripening  process, 
which  means  the  development  and  maturing  of  the  seeds,  produces 
a  heavy  strain  upon  the  growing  plant,  the  life  and  yield  of  the  plant 
being  in  proportion  to  the  number  of  fruits  which  are  allowed  to 
ripen.  If  no  fruits  are  allowed  to  come  to  maturty  the  plants  will 
remain  green  and  in  an  active  vegetative  condition  longer  and  will 
produce  a  much  larger  aggregate  number  of  fruits. 

Dill  Pickles. — Dill  pickles,  which  are  much  prized  and  com- 
mand the  highest  price  among  pickles,  can  be  made  from  fresh 
cucumbers  as  they  come  from  the  vines,  or  from  vat  stock  which  has 
been  carried  for  some  time  at  the  salting  station. 

Cucumbers  Grown  in  Cold  Frames  for  Market. — Soil  for  use  in 
cold  frames  should  be  a  well-enriched  sandy  loam  of  the  type  of  the 
usual  sandy  loam.  If  it  can  be  dark  in  color,  this  is  an  advantage. 
If  normally  light,  the  color  can  be  changed  by  the  addition  of  muck 
or  by  incorporating  well-decomposed  stable  manure  with  the  surface 
Boil.  A  dark  color  is  of  some  advantage  in  helping  to  raise  the  tem- 
perature in  the  frames  under  the  glass. 

Watering. — Since  the  glazed  sash  prevent  the  soil  beneath  them 
being  moistened  by  natural  means — that  is,  by  rain  or  dew — it  is 
necessary  that  means  be  provided  for  watering  or  irrigating  the 
plants.  This  can  be  done  by  arranging  pipes  upon  the  surface  of 


JAPANESE   CLIMBING   CUCUMBER   NEARLY   SIX   FEET  FROM   THE   GROUND 
WELL-GROWN   CUCUMBERS 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  69 

the  ground  or  at  a  convenient  height  overhead,  so  as  not  to  interfere 
with  cultivation,  from  which  water  can  be  drawn  to  sprinkle  the  sur- 
face of  the  beds  at  desired  intervals  and  as  the  plants  may  require. 
The  work  of  watering  should,  however,  be  very  carefully  done.  The 
same  general  precautions  necessary  for  the  care  of  plants  in  cold 
frames  should  be  observed — that  is,  to  do  the  watering  in  the  morn- 
ing on  bright  days  only,  when  air  can  be  admitted  and  when  the  sun 
will  soon  dry  the  moisture  from  the  leaves  of  the  plants.  In  this  way 
much  can  be  done  to  protect  the  plants  from  injury  from  such  dis- 
eases as  the  damping-off  fungus  and  mildew. 

Ventilation. — Besides  the  precautions  to  be  observed  in  watering 
plants  in  cold  frames,  extreme  care  is  necessary  to  give  the  plants 
sufficient  air  to  keep  them  in  a  healthy  condition.  If  the  atmosphere 
is  allowed  to  become  close  and  very  hot,  the  plants  will  be  weakened 
and  thus  rendered  more  susceptible  to  the  attacks  of  plant  diseases. 

Forcing  Cucumbers  Under  Glass. — Forcing  is  a  technical  term 
used  by  gardeners  to  designate  the  growing  of  plants  out  of  their 
normal  season  under  an  artificial  environment.  The  cucumber  is 
one  of  the  few  garden  plants  which  lend  themselves  to  this  manner 
of  cultivation  in  addition  to  their  more  extensive  cultivation  in  the 
open  ground.  Under  the  stimulus  of  forcing  work,  two  distinct  types 
of  cucumbers  have  been  developed.  These  are  recognized  in  the  trade 
as  the  English  type  and  the  American  type.  The  English  type  is 
purely  a  product  of  forcing-house  conditions,  as  the  climate  of  Eng- 
land is  not  congenial  to  the  growth  and  development  of  the  cucumber 
in  the  open.  The  American  type  of  cucumber  is  primarily  a  product 
of  field  conditions,  and  the  few  varieties  which  have  been  developed 
to  meet  the  requirements  of  the  forcing  house  are  simply  modifica- 
tions of  the  existing  field  or  outdoor  forms.  The  English  type  of  cu- 
cumber is  a  long,  cylindrical,  uniformly  green  fruit,  with  few  seeds 
and  a  very  fleshy  seed  cavity ;  in  fact,  the  normal  seed  cavity  of  the 
forced  cucumber  is  almost  entirely  wanting.  The  triangular  shape 
characteristic  of  the  normal  outdoor  cucumber  has  been  lost,  and  the 
cylindrical  outline  almost  perfected.  There  is  considerable  difference 
in  the  size  and  length  of  the  various  English  varieties  of  cucumbers. 
The  American  type  of  cucumber  is  primarily  grown  in  the  field,  the 
product  to  be  used  either  for  pickling  or  for  slicing.  Forcing  cucum- 
bers in  America  is  confined  to  those  varieties  which  produce  large 
fruits  suitable  for  slicing.  Only  three  or  four  of  the  better  and  larger 
field  varieties  are  adapted  to  this  purpose.  Notable  among  these  is  the 
White  Spine,  the  Arlington  White  Spine  being  the  variety  which 
has  been  especially  developed  for  forcing.  The  Long  Green,  or  a 
modification  of  it,  is  also  sometimes  used,  but  aside  from  these  two 
varieties  there  are  few  that  ever  find  their  way  into  the  forcing  house. 
Such  varieties  as  the  Boston  Pickling,  Chicago  Pickling,  and  the 
cluster  varieties  in  general  are  not  adapted  to  forcing  purposes.  The 
forcing  of  cucumbers  presupposes  that  an  adequate  forcing  house  or 
greenhouse  is  at  hand  for  such  work.  The  chief  desideratum  in  a 
forcing  house  for  cucumbers  is  a  maximum  amount  of  light,  suffi- 
cient headroom,  and  adequate  radiation  to  maintain  a  temperature 


70  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

varying  from  65°  to  85°  F.  The  amount  of  radiation  will,  of  course, 
depend  upon  the  style  of  heating  employed,  whether  steam  or  hot 
water,  and  upon  the  location  of  the  greenhouse,  whether  at  the  north 
or  the  south ;  the  outside  temperature  determining  to  a  considerable 
extent  the  amount  of  radiation  required  in  the  house  to  maintain  a 
given  degree  of  heat. 

Propagation. — There  are  a  numher  of  methods  of  propagation 
followed  by  successful  cucumber  growers,  all  of  which  have  some 
advantages.  Three  of  the  more  common  practices  are  as  follows: 
(1)  To  plant  the  seeds  of  cucumbers  in  the  soil  of  the  bench  where  the 
plants  are  to  grow  and  mature;  (2)  to  plant  the  seeds  of  the  cucum- 
bers in  3-inch  or  4-inch  pots  filled  about  half  full  of  soil  and  after  the 
seeds  have  germinated  and  the  hypocotyl  or  stem  of  the  seedling  has 
elongated  to  fill  the  pots  well  up  to  the  seed  leaves  with  soil;  and 
(3)  to  plant  the  seeds  in  cups  similar  to  those  used  for  harvesting 
strawberries,  except  that  the  cups  for  this  purpose  are  usually  made 
of  Georgia  pine.  In  the  first  case,  where  the  seeds  are  planted  directly 
in  the  soil  on  the  benches,  cucumbers  are  usually  employed  as  a 
crop  to  follow  lettuce,  seeds  being  planted  in  the  lettuce  benches 
before  the  crop  is  entirely  removed,  heads  of  lettuce  being  taken  out 
at  proper  distances  to  allow  for  the  correct  spacing  of  the  cucumber 
plants,  and  the  seeds  of  cucumbers  planted  in  the  areas  so  left.  In 
the  other  two  cases  the  rearing  of  the  plants  for  forcing  purposes 
can  be  carried  on  in  a  small  house  especially  designed  for  this  purpose 
or  in  a  general  propagating  house,  thus  obviating  the  necessity  of 
heating  and  maintaining  normal  conditions  in  the  growing  house 
during  the  period  previous  to  which  the  plants  begin  to  run. 

Planting  on  the  Benches. — As  soon  as  the  plants  show  well- 
developed  runners  and  are  10  to  12  inches  long  they  should  be  placed 
in  their  permanent  position  upon  the  greenhouse  benches.  Plants 
grown  in  pots  must  be  carefully  removed  from  these  receptacles  to 
the  bench,  but  those  grown  in  the  wooden  cups  above  referred  to  can 
be  planted,  cup  and  all,  in  the  soil  of  the  bench.  The  utmost  care 
should  be  exercised  to  keep  the  plants  of  the  cucumber  growing 
rapidly  at  all  times.  If  cucumbers  receive  a  severe  check  or  are 
placed  under  conditons  which  are  not  entirely  congenial  to^  them, 
they  are  liable  to  become  dwarfed  and  stunted,  and  as  soon  as  vigorous 
growth  ceases  they  become  the  prey  of  the  melon  aphis,  mildew,  and 
other  pests  and  diseases  which  are  so  annoying  to  growers  of  cucum- 
bers under  artificial  conditions. 

Distance  to  Plant. — After  the  plants  have  attained  a  height  of 
10  or  12  inches  and  are  in  a  vigorous  growing  condition  they  should 
be  placed  about  15  or  18  inches  apart  in  single  rows  upon  the  side 
benches  of  the  greenhouse,  which  are  normally  3%  feet  wide,  or 
if  planted  on  8-foot  benches  they  should  be  planted  about  10  or  12 
inches  from  the  edge  of  the  bench  and  15  to  18  inches  apart  and  par- 
allel with  the  edge  of  the  bench.  In  the  broad  benches,  where  more 
than  a  double  row  can  be  carried,  plants  can  be  set  about  18  inches 
apart  and  in  rows  about  2  feet  apart.  A  satisfactory  plan  for  an  8- 
foot  bench  will  be  a  row  parallel  with  and  10  inches  from  each  edge 


FIELD  'AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  71 

of  the  bench  and  a  double  row  18  inches  apart  through  the  middle 
of  the  bench.  It  is  well,  however,  to  allow  as  much  space  as  possible. 
The  cucumber  is  a  rank-growing  plant  and  many  side  branches  will 
develop  if  sufficient  space  is  allowed. 

Training  the  Plants. — As  soon  as  the  plants  show  a  tendency  to 
run  they  should  be  trained  so  as  to  keep  them  from  becoming  unduly 
tangled  and  in  order  to  fill  all  the  space  upon  the  trellis.  Galvanized 
wires  No.  16  can  be  run  lengthwise  of  the  house  and  stapled  to  the 
supports,  which  should  be  placed  about  6  feet  apart.  Upon  side 
benches  which  are  elevated  it  will  be  necessary  to  train  the  cucumbers 
to  the  framework  of  the  greenhouse.  For  this  purpose  screw  eyes 
about  8  inches  in  length  can  be  placed  in  the  sash  bars  at  intervals 
of  4  or  5  feet  and  the  parallel  wires  to  which  the  vines  are  to  be  tied 
stretched  12  inches  apart  lengthwise  of  the  house  through  these 
screw  eyes  and  firmly  fastened  at  the  ends.  The  vines  should  then) 
be  loosely  tied  to  the  supporting  wires  with  raffia  or  soft  cotton  yarn. 
When  the  fruits  become  heavy,  as  in  the  case  of  the  English  varieties, 
it  will  become  necessary  to  truss  them  to  prevent  their  weight 
breaking  the  vines.  Heavy  fruits  will  cause  the  supporting  wires 
or  bands  of  raffia  to  break  or  girdle  the  vines  unless  they  are 
supported  independently.  The  American  varieties  seldom  attain 
sufficient  size  to  require  this  precaution.  Fruits  of  these  varieties 
as  soon  as  they  are  8  to  10  inches  in  length  and  2  inches  in  diameter 
are  harvested  for  market.  The  vines  are  usually  sufficiently  strong; 
to  withstand  the  weight  of  fruit  of  this  size. 

Pollination. — The  cucumber,  like  the  other  members  of  the 
gourd  family  to  which  it  belongs,  bears  two  kinds  of  blossoms  on 
widely  separated  parts  of  the  plant.  The  staminate  or  nonfruit- 
bearing  flower  is  the  first  to  appear  and  is  in  general  borne  near  the 
base  of  the  plant.  The  pistillate  blossom  with  the  embryo 
cucumbers  at  its  base  appears  later  and  is  borne  near  the  extremity 
of  the  newly  forming  and  rapidly  growing  shoots.  Since  these 
flowers  are  normally  produced  in  this  way,  it  is  necessary  that  a 
transfer  of  pollen  be  made  from  the  staminate  to  the  pistillate' 
flowers  throughout  the  agency  of  insects  or  by  other  artificial  means. 
Under  greenhouse  conditions  and  at  the  time  of  year  that  the  cucum- 
ber is  forced  it  is  necessary  to  provide  for  pollination.  In  small 
establishments  this  work  can  be  done  by  hand.  The  staminate 
blossoms  are  removed,  the  petals  turned  back  so  as  to  allow  the 
anthers  to  project,  and  the  pencil  thus  produced  is  then  thrust  into 
the  cup  of  the  pistillate  flower  in  such  a  way  as  to  distribute  pollen 
upon  the  stigma  of  the  pistillate  flower.  In  large  establishments 
where  hand  pollination  is  out  of  the  question  a  colony  of  honey  bees 
is  placed  in  each  house  to  accomplish  the  work. — (F.  B.  254,  255; 
Mass.  Ag.  Col.  E.  S.  87;  Iowa  Ag.  Col.  E.  S.  47.) 

DANDELION. 

Sow  the  seed  of  dandelion  in  spring  in  drills  18  inches  apart, 
covering  it  one-half  inch  deep.  Thin  the  plants  to  about  12  inches 
apart  and  give  good  clean  cultivation  throughout  the  summer.  la 
tne  colder  parts  of  the  country  it  may  be  desirable  to  mulch  slightly 


72  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

during  the  winter  to  prevent  the  plants  heaving  out  of  the  soil. 
Early  the  following  spring  the  plants  will  be  ready  for  use  as  greens, 
but  they  are  greatly  improved  if  blanched  by  setting  two  boards  in 
the  forms  of  an  inverted  letter  V  over  the  row.  The  blanching  not 
only  makes  the  leaves  more  tender  but  destroys  a  part  of  the  bitter 
taste.  Dandelion  greens  should  be  boiled  in  two  waters  to  removQ 
the  bitterness.— (F.  B.  255-68;  S.  Dak.  68;  U.  Id.  E.  S.  10.) 

DILL. 

Grown  as  Fennel  which  it  greatly  resembles,  both  being  well 
known  herbs  used  for  flavoring  pickles,  and  both  being  of  unsur- 
passed hardiness.— (Mich.  E.  S.  20.) 

EGG  PLANT. 

This  delicious  vegetable  is  not  so  much  cultivated  in  our  gardens 
as  it  should  be.  This  has  arisen  largely  from  the  difficulty  of 
getting  the  plants  from  seed  in  the  open  ground.  If  you  have  no 
greenhouse,  hot-bed,  nor  frame,  it  will  be  best  to  buy  the  plants  at 
setting-  time  from  some  one  who  grows  them  early  in  pots.  Plants 
pulled  from  a  bed  are  seldom  worth  planting,  as  the  egg  plant  is 
alow  to  recover  from  a  serious  check. 

Kind  of  Soil. — A  sandy  loam  will  be  found  excellent  soil ;  this 
should  be  well  drained  and  have  a  moist  subsoil.  Land  that  has 
been,  'drained,  if  all  other  conditions  are  proper,  will  make  an 
excellent  field.  This  plant  is  a  deep  feeder,  so  that  the  land  should 
be  plowed  as  deeply  as  possible.  A  new  field  should  not  be  taken, 
while  one  might  succeed,  the  chances  are  not  so  good  as  on  an  old 
and  well-tried  piece  of  land.  Be  sure  that  all  rubbish  and  matter 
that  could  interfere  with  cultivation  has  been  removed.  Fertilize 
the  field  broadcast ;  there  is  little  or  no  danger  of  the  plants  failing  to 
get  the  food  if  it  is  in  the  soil.  The  best  way  is  to  apply  the  fertilizer 
just  before  plowing  the  field,  and  then  apply  a  smaller  amount  where 
the  plants  are  to  stand;  work  the  fertilizer  in  well  a  week  or  two 
before  setting  out.  Lay  the  land  off  into  rows  four  feet  apart,  and 
set  the  plants  three  or  four  feet  apart  in  the  row.  At  convenient 
distances  a  row  may  be  skipped  to  make  a  road  to  gather  the  crop. 
After  the  crop  has  been  planted  there  is  little  or  no  use  for  a  hoe; 
the  plow  can  and  ought  to  do  the  work.  No  weeds  should  be  allowed 
to  show  more  than  the  seed  leaves,  and  the  ground  should  be  kept 
mellow  enough  to  let  a  person  sink  nearly  to  the  ankles  in  dry  times. 
When  the  fertilizer  has  been  applied  properly  the  roots  will  seek 
the  deeper  soil,  and  the  ordinary  horse  cultivator  ^  will  not  reach 
them  at  all.  Eggplant  raising  pays  best  under  high  cultivation. 
By  replenishing  the  fertilizer,  plants  may  be  kept  in  bearing  until 
frost  kills  them  in  the  fall,  but  it  will  be  found  more  profitable  to 
renew  the  field,  if  a  summer  or  fall  crop  is  desired. —  (U.  Id.  E.  S. 
10;  N.  C.  E.  S.  132;  Fla.  E.  S.  31;  F.  B.  255;  Iowa  E.  S.  47.) 

ENDIVE. 

The  endive  is  a  form  of  chicory.  Sow  the  seeds  thinly  in  drills, 
and  when  the  plants  are  well  established  thin  to  8  inches.  "Water 
and  cultivate  thoroughly  in  order  that  a  good  growth  of  leaves  may 
be  made.  When  the  leaves  are  6  to  8  inches  in  length  draw  them 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  73 

together  and  tie  them  so  the  heart  will  blanch.  The  leaves  should 
not  be  tied  up  while  wet  or  decay  will  follow.  The  heads  should  be 
used  as  soon  as  blanched.  For  winter  use  sow  the  seeds  rather  late 
and  remove  the  plants,  with  a  ball  of  earth  adhering  to  the  roots, 
to  a  cellar  or  cold  frame,  and  blanch  during  the  winter  as  required 
for  use.  Endive  is  used  as  a  salad  at  times  of  the  year  when  lettuce 
and  similar  crops  are  out  of  season. — (F.  B.  255;  U.  Id.  E.  S.  10;  S. 
Dak.  E.  S.  68.) 

FENNEL. 

Cultivated  for  the  sweet  aromatic  foliage  and  fruit  is  an  herb 
used  for  flavoring  pickles. — (Mich.  E.  S.  20.) 

GARLIC. 

Garlic  is  closely  allied  to  the  onion,  but  will  remain  in  the 
ground  from  one  year  to  another  if  undisturbed.  Garlic  is  planted 
by  setting  the  small  bulbs,  or  cloves,  either  in  the  autumn  or  early 
spring.  The  culture  is  practically  the  same  as  for  the  onion.  The 
bulbs  are  used  for  flavoring  purposes. — (F.  B.  255.) 

GINGER. 

Ginger,  the  underground  root  stock  of  Zingiber  officinale,  is 
perhaps  most  commonly  used  dry  as  a  spice,  though  the  fresh  root 
or  green  ginger  is  common  in  autumn,  being  used  in  pickle  making, 
preserving,  and  in  other  ways.  The  young  and  tender  ends  of  the 
branching  root  or  rhizome,  called  ginger  buds,  are  the  most  delicate 
portion  as  regards  both  texture  and  flavor.  Large  quantities  of 
ginger  root  are  preserved  in  rich  sugar  syrup,  the  round  stone  jars  of 
"Canton  ginger"  being  an  old-fashioned  confection  which  is  still 
much  prized.  The  crystallized  or  candied  ginger  is  even  more 
common  and  is  frequently  served  as  a  sweetmeat,  and  is  also  used 
in  making  deserts  of  various  sorts. — (F.  B.  295.) 

HERBS. 

To  this  group  belong  a  number  of  plants  hardly  recognized 
as  vegetables  in  the  common  use  of  the  term,  yet  of  sufficient  impor- 
tance to  entitle  them  to  a  corner  in  the  family  garden.  The  herb 
garden  or  "patch"  is  too  often  considered  a  worthless  gift  or  fashion 
handed  down  from  grandmother's  day.  In  every  well  ordered 
garden  there  should  be  a  few  of  the  common  herbs.  The  same  con- 
.ditions  concerning  care,  cultivation,  etc.,  will  answer  for  all.  The 
site  selected  should  be  out  of  the  way  so  that  it  may  not  be  disturbed. 
As  the  bed  is  to  be  permanent  it  should  be  made  fertile  and  cultivated 
deeply.  In  sowing  classify  according  to  whether  they  are  annuals 
or  perennials.  The  plants  may  be  ^rown  from  seed  but  whenever 
possible,  propagation  by  root  division  is  much  more  easy  and  certain. 
In  autumn  before  frost  the  leaves  and  stems  of  those  desired  for 
winter  use  should  be  gathered,  tied  in  small  bunches  and  hung  up 
to  dry  in  an  airy  room.  Where  the  seed  is  desired,  it  should  be 
allowed  to  ripen  and  harvested.— (U.  Id.  E.  S.  10;  S.  Dak.  E.  S.  68; 
N.  C.  E.  S.  132.) 

ICE  PLANT. 

This  plant  (Mesembryanthemum  cristallinum)  gets  its  name 
from  the  crystalline  ice-like  covering  of  the  leaves.  In  hot  countries 


74  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

the  leaves  are  used  as  a  salad  or  boiled  the  same  as  spinach.*— (S. 
Dak.  E.  8.  68.) 

HORSE-KADISH. 

This  plant  will  thrive  best  in  a  deep,  rich  soil,  where  there  is 
plenty  of  moisture.  The  rows  should  be  3  feet  apart  and  the  plants 
12  to  18  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Tops  cut  from  large  roots  or 
pieces  of  small  roots  are  used  for  planting.  A  comparatively  few 
hills  of  horse-radish  will  be  sufficient  for  family  use,  and  the  roots 
required  for  starting  can  be  secured  of  seedsmen  for  25  or  30  cents 
a  dozen.  This  crop  will  require  no  particular  cultivation  except  to 
keep  down  the  weeds,  and  is  inclined  to  become  a  weed  itself  if  not 
controlled.  The  large  fleshy  roots  are  prepared  for  use  by  peeling 
and  grating.  The  grated  root  is  treated  with  a  little  salt  and  vinegar 
and  served  as  a  relish  with  meats,  oysters,  etc.  The  roots  should  be 
dug  during  the  winter  or  early  spring  before  the  leaves  start.  After 
being  treated  with  salt  and  vinegar  the  grated  root  may  be  bottled  for 
summer  use.  As  this  has  always  been  considered  strictly  a  cold- 
weather  plant,  is  would  seem  useless  to  try  to  grow  it  in  Porto  Rico, 
but,  as  it  gave  very  favorable  results  at  this  station,  it  can  no  doubt 
be  produced  for  local  consumption.  It  is  practically  unknown  in 
Porto  Rico,  but  most  people  acquire  a  taste  for  it,  and  foreigners, 
who  are  used  to  it  in  their  native  country,  will  find  it  very  gratifying 
that  they  can  grow  it  here.  In  the  North  it  thrives  in  any  soil  from 
a  light  sand  to  a  heavy  clay,  but  prefers  a  medium  heavy  loam. 
Here  it  grows  luxuriantly  in  heavy  clay  but  may  not  do  so  well  in 
sand.  It  is  planted  from  cuttings  of  the  lateral  roots,  which  should 
be  from  4  to  6  inches  long  and  planted  at  a  distance  of  12  to  15 
inches  in  rows  24  to  30  inches  apart.  Root  cuttings  can  be  obtained 
either  in  spring  or  fall  from  any  seed  firm,  and  these  should  be 
planted  when  received.  The  roots  can  be  dug  when  large  enough 
for  use  or  can  be  left  in  the  ground  until  wanted. — (F.  B.  255;  U. 
Id.  E.  S.  10;  P.  RicoE.  S.  7.) 

KALE,  OR  BORECOLE. 

There  are  a  large  number  of  forms  of  kale,  and  these  are 
thought  by  some  to  be  the  original  type  of  the  cabbage.  Kale  does 
not  form  a  head  and  has  convoluted  leaves  and  thick  leaf  stems.  It 
is  cultivated  the  same  as  cabbage,  but  may  be  set  somewhat  closer. 
This  crop  is  very  hardy  and  will  live  through  the  winter  in  the  open 
ground  m  localities  where  freezing  it  not  too  severe.  The  flavor 
of  kale  is  improved  by  frost.  Kale  is  used  for  greens  during  the 
winter,  and  as  a  substitute  for  cabbage. — (F.  B.  255:  N.  Car.  E.  S. 
132  ;U.  Id.E.  S.  10.) 

KOHL-RABI. 

Kohl-rabi  belongs  to  the  same  class  as  cabbage  and  cauliflower, 
but  presents  a  marked  variation  from  either.  It  is,  perhaps,  half- 
way between  the  cabbage  and  turnip,  in  that  its  edible  part  consists 
of  the  swollen  stem  of  the  plant.  For  an  early  crop,  plant  and  culti- 
vate the  same  as  for  early  cabbage.  For  a  late  crop  or  for  all  seasons 
in  the  South  the  seed  may  be  so^wn  in  drills  where  the  crop  is  to  be 
grown  and  thinned  to  about  8  inches  apart  in  the  row.  The  rows 


FIELD  'AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  75 

should  be  from  18  to  36  inches  apart,  according  to  the  kind  of  culti- 
vation employed.  The  fleshy  stems  should  be  used  while  they  are 
young  and  quite  tender.  Prepare  kohl-rabi  for  the  table  in  the 
same  manner  as  turnips,  which  it  very  much  resembles  when  cooked. 
—  (F.  B.  255;  U.  Id.  E.  S.  10;  Mich.  E.  S.  20;  N.  C.  E.  S.  132;  La. 
E.  S.  90.) 


This  plant  belongs  to  the  same  class  as  does  the  onion,  but 
requires  somewhat  different  treatment.  Leeks  can  be  grown  on  any 
good  garden  soil  and  are  usually  sown  in  a  shallow  trench.  The 
plants  should  be  thinned  to  stand  about  4  inches  apart  in  the  row  and 
the  cultivation  should  be  similar  to  that  for  onions.  After  the  plants 
have  attained  almost  full  size  the  earth  is  drawn  around  them  to  the 
height  of  6  or  8  inches  to  blanch  the  fishy  stem.  The  leek  does  not 
form  a  true  bulb  like  the  onion,  but  the  stem  is  uniformly  thick 
throughout.  Leeks  are  marketed  in  bunches  like  young  onions,  and 
they  may  be  stored  the  same  as  celery  for  winter.  Leeks  are  used 
for  flavoring  purposes  and  are  boiled  and  served  with  a  cream 
dressing  the  same  as  young  onions.  —  (N.  Car.  E.  S.  132  ;  La.  E.  S.  90  ; 
F.  B.  255.) 

LETTUCE. 

This  crop  attains  its  best  development  in  a  rich  sandy  loam  in 
which  there  is  plenty  of  organic  matter.  Lettuce  thrives  best  during 
the  early  spring  or  late  autumn  and  will  not  withstand  the  heat  of 
summer.  In  order  that  the  leaves  may  be  crisp  and  tender,  it  is 
necessary  to  force  the  growth.  The  usual  method  of  growing  lettuce 
for  home  use  is  to  sow  the  seeds  broadcast  in  a  bed  and  remove  the 
leaves  from  the  plants  as  rapidly  as  they  become  large  enough  for 
use.  A  much  better  method  is  either  to  thin  or  transplant  the  seed- 
lings and  allow  the  plants  to  form  rather  compact  heads  and  then 
cut  the  entire  plant  for  use.  In  the  Southern  States  the  seeds  may 
be  sown  during  the  autumn  and  the  plants  allowed  to  remain  in  the 
ground  over  winter.  At  the  North  the  seeds  may  be  sown  in  a  hot- 
bed or  cold  frame  and  the  seedlings  transplanted  to  the  open  ground, 
or  the  seeding  may  be  in  rows  in  the  garden  and  the  plants  thinned 
to  5  or  6  inches  in  the  row.  Lettuce  may  be  grown  in  rows  about 
12  inches  apart.  In  order  to  produce  crisp  and  tender  lettuce  during 
the  summer  months,  it  may  be  necessary  to  provide  some  form  of 
partial  shading.—  (F.  B.  255;  N.  Y.  E.  S.  208;  N.  Car.  E.  S.  147; 
Tenn.  E.  S.  2;  Purdue  Ind.  E.  S.  66  and  84;  Kas.  E.  S.  70.) 
LLEREN  (Calathea  allouya). 

This  vegetable,  although  cultivated  in  Porto  Rico  for  a  long 
time,  is  not  extensively  known.  The  plant  at  a  cursory  glance 
resembles  a  canna.  The  edible  tubers,  which  are  formed  in  great 
profusion,  can  be  eaten  boiled  like  potatoes;  but,  unlike  potatoes, 
they  do  not  become  soft,  but  appear  hard  and  crisp  after  prolonged 
boiling.  Lleren  somewhat  resembles  boiled  sweet  corn  in  taste,  and 
most  people  pronounce  it  delicious  without  needing  to  acquire  a 
taste  for  it.  The  best  soil  for  lleren  is  a  rich,  moist,  well-drained  loam, 
which  is  usually  benefited  by  an  application  of  wood  ashes  or  sulphate 


76  TEE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

of  potash ;  an  excess  of  nitrogen  causes  the  production  of  large  tops 
and  few  tubers.  The  stools  or  roots  immediately  adhering  to  stalks 
are  the  parts  used  for  propagating;  the  tubers  will  not  germinate. 
Lleren  should  be  planted  at  intervals  of  2  feet  in  rows  4  feet  apart» 
and  cultivated  like  any  other  vegetable.  It  requires  ten  to  fifteen 
months  to  mature  tubers,  which  are  %  to  1  inch  in  diameter,  and 
may  be  harvested  at  any^  time  when  large  enough,  but  can  be  left  in 
the  ground  for  a  long  time  without  spoiling.  It  is  a  good  shipper 
and  if  introduced  into  the  northern  market  it  would  soon  create  a 
demand.— (P.  Rico  E.  S.  7.) 

MARTYNIA  (Unicorn  Plant). 

The  curious,  long  beaked  fruit  is  used  for  pickles.  The  plants 
are  quite  hardy  and  ornamental,  the  fruit  being  no  less  conspicuous 
for  its  odd  shape  than  the  large  wax-like  flowers  of  whitish  color  with 
purple  and  yellow  spots. — (Mich.  E.  S.  20.) 

MELON — MUSK. 

Soil  and  Location. — The  soil  for  muskmelons  must  be  well 
drained  and  contain  an  abundance  of  humus  and  readily  available 
plant  food.  If  these  conditions  are  met,  it  matters  little  what  the 
particular  type  of  soil  may  be.  A  knoll  or  ridge  sloping  gently  to  the 
south  and  protected  by  timber  on  the  north  and  west  furnishes  an 
ideal  site  for  melons.  Such  a  location  will  usually  produce  earlier 
melons  than  a  north  or  west  slope  and  is  better  than  a  level  area  be- 
cause the  soil  dries  put  more  quickly  after  a  rain,  thus  permitting 
more  timely  tillage  in  a  wet  season,  and  resulting  in  the  production 
of  melons  of  better  flavor.  It  is  only  in  dry  seasons  that  low,  flat 
land,  unless  thoroughly  tile-drained,  produces  good  melons.  The 
condition  of  the  soil  in  reference  to  its  supply  of  humus  has  a  marked 
influence  upon  the  welfare  of  the  melon  crop.  Because  of  its  abund- 
ance of  humus,  newly  cleared  timber  land  is  well  adapted  to  melon 
culture,  but  is  difficult  to  work  on  account  of  the  stumps  and  roots. 
Land  slightly  deficient  in  humus  can  be  put  in  condition  for  grow- 
ing melons  by  plowing  under  a  clover  sod,  or  a  crop  of  cowpeas  or 
rye,  or  a  coat  of  manure  applied  broadcast.  If  melons  are  to  be 
grown  as  one  of  the  crops  in  a  regular  rotation,  they  should  consti- 
tute the  crop  immediately  following  the  leguminous  crop  designed  to 
add  humus  and  nitrogen  to  the  soil.  In  regions  where  winter  wheat 
and  clover  are  grown,  a  rotation  of  wheat,  clover  and  melons  is 
highly  satisfactory.  Another  good  rotation  would  be:  oats,  clover, 
melons,  corn.  In  regions  where  clover  does  not  thrive  and  wheat 
and  oats  are  not  grown,  a  rotation  of  corn,  cowpeas,  and  melons  may 
be  employed,  or  the  rotation  extended  by  seeding  to  grass  after  the 
melons  are  harvested.  Even  with  careful  attention  to  rotation  and 
the  incorporation  of  humus  by  plowing  under  catch  crops  or  manure, 
ordinary  farm  land — including  good  corn  land — is  not  sufficiently 
rich  to  produce  a  satisfactory  crop  of  melons  without  the  use  of  fer- 
tilizing material  in  the  hills.  It  is  only  on  garden  soil  that  has  been 
made  exceedingly  rich  by  repeated  applications  of  manure,  that  it  is 
Tnse  to  attempt  to  grow  melons  without  special  treatment  of  the  hills. 

'Manure  for  the  Hills. — The  manure  for  use  in  the  melon  hills 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  11 

is  ricked  up  in  the  fall  in  long  low  piles,  about  eight  feet  wide  and 
two  or  three  feet  deep.  The  sides  of  the  pile  are  made  as  nearly  per- 
pendicular as  possible  and  the  top  is  flattened  so  that  rains  will  soak 
in  instead  of  running  off.  Sometimes  a  layer  of  dirt  about  three 
inches  deep  is  placed  on  top  of  the  manure  to  help  retain  the  mois- 
ture. Early  in  the  spring,  work  is  commenced  on  the  manure  to  put 
it  in  condition  for  use.  The  pile  must  be  cut  down  and  the  manure 
turned  and  mixed  until  it  is  thoroughly  decomposed  and  of  fine  tex- 
ture. Formerly  this  work  was  done  by  hand  with  a  fork,  and  en- 
tailed a  large  amount  of  labor.  Now  some  of  the  large  growers  do 
all  this  turning  of  the  manure  with  a  disk  and  plow.  The  pile  is 
worked  three  or  four  times  at  intervals  of  one  or  two  weeks. 

Time  of  Planting. — The  melon  is  a  warm  season  crop,  and  un- 
less the  soil  is  warm  and  the  weather  favorable  the  seeds  will  not 
germinate  nor  the  plants  grow.  It  is  therefore  usually  unwise  to 
plant  in  advance  of  the  normal  season  in  the  hope  of  securing  an 
early  crop.  Occasionally,  such  plantings  do  well,  but  usually  the 
etand  is  poor,  necessitating  much  replanting,  and  the  early  plants 
which  do  survive  are  likely  to  be  so  badly  stunted  by  reason  of  the 
cool  weather  that  they  do  not  mature  their  crop  much  in  advance  of 
the  later  plantings  which  have  had  the  benefit  of  warm  weather  from 
the  start. 

Preparations  for  Planting. — Melon  ground  should  be  plowed 
earty  in  the  spring,  or  replowed  if  it  was  broken  in  the  fall.  After 
plowing,  it  should  be  thoroughly  pulverized  by  the  use  of  a  disk  or 
harrow,  or  both,  and  then  kept  in  good,  friable  condition  by  occa- 
sional working  until  planting  time  arrives.  Shortly  before  planting 
is  to  begin,  the  field  should  be  furrowed  out  both  ways  with  a  single- 
shovel  plow  or  a  one-horse  turning  plow.  The  furrows  should  be 
about  six  inches  deep,  and  as  far  apart  as  the- hills  are  to  be  placed. 
On  some  soils  melon  vines  make  only  a  moderate  growth  and  the 
hills  may  be  planted  as  close  as  four  feet  apart  each  way ;  but  on  rich 
soil,  where  they  make  a  stronger  growth,  they  should  be  at  least  five 
by  five,  and  in  some  cases  six  by  six.  After  the  land  is  furrowed  out 
the  rotted  manure  is  applied  at  the  intersections  of  the  furrows. 
From  a  quart  to  a  half-peck  of  manure  is  used  for  each  hill,  depend- 
ing upon  the  equality  of  the  manure  and  also  the  quantity  available. 
The  manure  is  dropped  into  the  bottom  of  the  furrow,  and  either 
mixed  thoroughly  with  the  soil  there,  and  covered  with  a  layer  of 
pure  soil  in  which  to  plant  the  seed,  or  is  merely  covered  with  the  soil 
without  any  mixing.  The  latter  method  seems  to  give  fully  as  good 
results  as  the  former,  especially  when  a  small  quantity  of  manure  is 
used,  and  is  a  great  saving  of  labor.  In  either  case,  especial  care 
should  be  taken  to  compact  the  soil  over  the  manure  so  that  when  the 
seed  is  planted  it  will  not  suffer  from  lack  of  moisture  by  reason  of 
any  vacant  air  space  in  or  about  the  mass  of  manure.  Sometimes  the 
manure  is  covered  with  soil  by  merely  plowing  a  furrow  on  each  side 
of  the  furrow  containing  the  manure,  but  unless  the  soil  is  in  exceed- 
ingly fine  condition,  this  method  is  not  as  satisfactory  as  using  a  hoe 
and  giving  each  hill  individual  attention.  In  making  the  hill,  some 


78  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

planters  compact  the  soil  with  the  hoe,  while  others  use  the  feet. 
When  ready  for  planting,  the  hill  should  be  practically  level  with 
the  general  surface  of  the  field.  If  too  low,  the  hill  will  become 
water-soaked  in  case  of  rain  and  the  seeds  or  plants  injured ;  if  too 
high,  there  is  likely  to  be  insufficient  moisture  to  insure  proper  ger- 
mination and  growth. 

Planting  the  Seed. — If  the  hills  have  been  made  more  than  a 
few  minutes  before  the  seed  is  dropped,  the  top  layer  of  dry  soil 
ehould  be  scraped  aside  with  a  hoe  so  that  the  seed  may  be  placed  in 
immediate  contact  with  moist  soil.  The  area  thus  prepared  for  plant 
ing  the  seed  should  be  at  least  six  inches  across,  and  should  be  smooth 
and  level.  From  ten  to  fifteen  seeds  should  be  scattered  uniformly 
over  this  area,  and  covered  with  about  half  an  inch  of  fine,  moist  soil. 
This  should  be  firmed  with  the  back  of  the  hoe  and  then  covered  with 
a  sprinkle  of  loose  dirt  to  serve  as  a  mulch.  If  a  heavy  rain  packs  the 
top  of  soil  and  a  crust  is  formed  before  the  plant  appears,  it  is  wise  to 
go  over  the  field  and  carefully  break  the  crust  over  each  hill  by 
means  of  a  garden  rake.  The  method  of  preparing  the  hills  and 
planting  the  seed  described  above  applies  to  field  rather  than  garden 
conditions  and  to  soils  of  medium  rather  than  excessive  fertility.  In 
a  market  garden  where  the  soil  is  exceedingly  rich  as  a  result  of  re- 
peated manuring  for  onions  or  cabbage,  and  is  in  fine  tilth,  it  is  a 
common  practice  to  sow  the  melon  seed  in  drills  six  to  eight  feet 
apart,  by  means  of  a  garden  seed  drill.  This  is  done  without  any 
special  preparation  of  the  soil  where  the  plants  are  to  stand,  or  ap- 
plication of  fertilizing  material  other  than  manure  applied  broad- 
cast before  plowing. 

Thinning. — While  ten  to  fifteen  seeds  are  planted  per  hill  for 
the  sake  of  insuring  a  full  stand,  only  two,  or  at  most  three,  plants 
are  left  to  make  the  crop.  Thinning  is  usually  deferred  until  the 
plants  have  become  fully  established,  and  the  struggle  against  the 
striped  beetle  is  nearly  over.  However,  the  plants  must  be  thinned 
before  they  begin  to  crowd  badly,  or  those  which  are  to  remain  will 
be  stunted  in  growth.  Usually  the  thinning  is  completed  by  the 
time  the  plants  have  four  rough  leaves.  If  the  seed  has  been  well 
scattered  in  planting,  so  that  each  plant  stands  apart  by  itself,  the 
superfluous  plants  may  be  pulled  with  the  fingers,  but  extreme  care 
must  be  taken  to  avoid  disturbing  the  roots  of  the  remaining  plants. 
Sometimes  the  plants  are  cut  off  with  a  knife  or  shears,  instead  of 
being  pulled,  and  thus  all  danger  of  disturbing  the  roots  is  avoided. 
If  the  seeds  have  been  sown  with  a  drill  as  in  market  gardening  prac- 
tice, the  plants  are  usually  thinned  to  one  in  a  place  at  distances  of 
two  to  two  and  one-half  feet  in  the  row. 

Transplanting. — Since  it  is  impossible  to  increase  the  earliness 
of  the  crop  to  any  great  extent  by  early  planting  in  the  field,  grow- 
ers have  adopted  the  transplanting  method.  This  makes  it  possible 
to  plant  the  seed  three  or  four  weeks  earlier  than  would  otherwise  be 
feasible,  and  to  grow  the  plants  under  controlled  conditions  of  tem- 
perature and  moisture  during  their  most  critical  period.  It  also  sim- 
plifies the  matter  of  protection  from  striped  bettles.  The  main  ob- 


FIELD  'AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  79 

jections  to  this  method  are  the  expense  for  sash,  and  the  difficulties 
attending  the  transplanting.  A  melon  plant  will  not  survive  trans- 
planting if  the  root  system  is  disturbed.  For  this  reason  the  seed  is 
sown  on  inverted  sod,  in  pots  or  in  dirt  bands.  The  dirt  bands  are 
used  almost  exclusively  by  commercial  growers.  These  are  thin 
strips  of  wood  veneer,  three  inches  wide  and  eighteen  inches  long, 
scored  at  intervals  of  four  inches  so  that  they  can  be  bent  without 
breaking.  When  folded  ready  for  use,  each  band  resembles  a  small 
strawberry  box  without  the  bottom.  These  bands  are  placed  close 
together  in  a  hotbed  and  filled  level  full  with  fine,  rich  soil.  With  a 
block  of  wood  shaped  for  the  purpose,  the  soil  within  the  bands  is 
pressed  until  it  is  %  to  %  inch  below  the  top  of  the  band.  If  only 
part  of  the  dirt  is  put  in  at  first,  and  is  pressed  down  firmly,  then  the 
rest  of  the  dirt  put  on  and  pressed,  the  soil  in  the  band  will  be  more 
compact  throughout  and  will  hold  together  better  in  the  transplant- 
ing than  if  the  dirt  were  pressed  only  once.  Unless  the  soil  used  was 
very  moist,  the  bed  is  then  thoroughly  watered.  Next,  three  seeds 
are  placed  in  each  band.  These  are  covered  with  fine,  loose  soil  deep 
enough  to  fill  the  band.  This  soil  is  not  firmed.  The  hotbed  for 
melon  plants  should  have  full  exposure  to  light  and  be  maintained  at 
a  high  temperature — about  85  degrees  F.  during  the  day  and  65  to 
70  degrees  at  night.  As  much  ventilation  should  be  given  as  the 
weather  will  permit,  and  care  exercised  to  avoid  over-watering.  As 
soon  as  the  plants  are  well  started,  they  are  thinned  to  two  in  a  band 
by  cutting  off  the  extra  plant  with  a  sharp  knife.  When  the  plants 
are  about  four  weeks  old  from  the  planting  of  seed  they  will  be  in  the 
right  condition  for  transplanting  to  the  field.  They  are  then  com- 
pact, stocky  plants  with  about  four  rough  leaves.  If  allowed  to  re- 
main longer  in  the  bed  they  begin  to  stretch  for  light  and  are  of  lit- 
tle value  for  planting,  for  the  long  naked  stems,  unable  to  support 
themselves  and  unaccustomed  to  direct  sunlight,  would  easily  be  sun- 
burned, and  the  plants  seriously  checked  if  not  killed  outright. 

Cultivation. — Whether  the  melons  are  transplanted  from  a  hot- 
bed or  grown  from  seed  planted  in  the  field,  the  tillage  of  the  crop 
should  begin  as  soon  as  the  plants  can  be  seen.  In  the  case  of  trans- 
planted plants,  this  will  be  the  same  day  that  they  are  set  in  the  field. 
The  early  tillage  should  be  deep,  and  as  close  to  the  plant  as  it  is  feas- 
ible to  run  the  cultivator.  The  object  of  this  deep  tillage  is  to  estab- 
lish a  deep  root  system  so  that  the  plants  will  not  suffer  so  severely 
from  dry  weather  later  in  the  season.  In  the  case  of  a  field  planted 
crop  it  is  not  feasible  to  cultivate  so  close  to  the  plants  early  in  the 
season  because  of  the  danger  of  tearing  out  the  little  plants.  For  this 
deep  tillage  a  one-horse  five-shovel  cultivator,  often  weighted  with  a 
rock,  is  the  tool  most  commonly  used.  It  is  customary  to  follow  this 
with  a  "boat"  or  a  14-tooth  cultivator  to  more  fully  pulverize  the 
soil.  Tillage  is  usually  given  after  each  rain  or  at  least  once  each 
week  so  that  the  soil  is  maintained  in  a  loose  friable  condition.  In 
addition  to  the  cultivation  with  a  horse,  much  hand  hoeing  is  re- 
quired close  about  the  plants.  Any  crust  forming  after  a  rain,  ig 
broken,  and  fresh,  moist  soil  drawn  up  about  the  plant.  Crab  grass 


80  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

and  weeds  appearing  in  the  hill  are  removed  by  hand.  Most  growers 
cease  tillage  and  lay-by  the  crop  as  soon  as  the  vines  have  run  enough 
to  interfere  with  the  cultivator.  The  experience  of  a  few  growers 
who  have  turned  the  vines  and  kept  them  in  windows  so  that  tillage 
could  be  continued  until  the  picking  season  opened,  indicates  that  a 
departure  from  the  old  method  is  likely  to  insure  better  development 
of  the  melons  and  a  longer  picking  season,  though  the  first  fruits 
may  not  ripen  so  early.  There  is  another  distinct  advantage  in  this 
turning  of  the  vines?  in  that  the  gathering  of  the  crop  is  greatly 
facilitated  and  there  is  no  injury  to  the  vines  from  tramping. 

Seed. — No  matter  what  variety  of  melon  is  grown,  it  is  ex- 
tremely important  that  pure  seed  be  planted  if  good  melons  are  to  be 
produced.  The  melon  deteriorates  very  rapidly  under  careless  meth- 
ods of  seed  selection.  None  but  the  very  choicest  specimens  of  the  de- 
sired type,  from  productive  vines,  should  be  selected  for  seed.  It  is 
unsafe  to  cut  seed  from  a  field  in  which  more  than  one  variety  of 
melon  is  grown ;  for  seed  from  such  a  field  would  likely  be  very  badly 
mixed,  and  the  product  undesirable  for  market.  If  a  grower  has  sale 
for  all  his  good  melons,  it  may  be  cheaper  for  him  to  purchase  his 
seed  than  to  save  it.  But  here  again  there  is  danger  of  procuring  in- 
ferior seed,  for  much  of  the  melon  seed  on  the  market  is  cut  without 
careful  selection,  in  order  to  meet  the  demand  for  cheap  seed.  Even 
cull  melons  are  used  to  supply  this  demand.  Such  seed  is  expensive 
at  any  price.  The  difference  in  the  cost  of  good  seed  and  poor  seed 
is  insignificant  when  compared  with  the  advantages  to  be  derived 
from  the  use  of  seed  which  can  be  depended  upon  to  produce  melons 
of  a  given  type. 

ricking. — There  is  considerable  difference  of  opinion  as  to  the 
exact  stage  of  maturity  at  which  melons  should  be  picked  for  ship- 
ment. If  allowed  to  become  too  ripe  before  picking,  they  become 
soft  by  the  time  they  reach  the  market,  and  often  must  be  sacrificed 
in  order  to  effect  an  immediate  sale.  If  picked  too  green,  the  melons 
reach  market  in  firm  condition,  but  are  lacking  in  flavor,  and  are  not 
desired  by  the  best  trade.  It  is  a  nice  point  to  pick  melons  at  such  a 
degree  of  ripeness  that  they  will  reach  the  market  in  firm  condition, 
and  yet  possess  the  requisite  flavor.  The  farther  from  market  the 
melons  are  produced,  the  less  mature  they  must  be  when  picked. 
Furthermore,  the  rapidity  of  softening  after  picking  varies  with  the 
temperature  to  which  the  melons  are  subjected.  The  cooler  they  can 
be  kept  after  picking,  the  longer  they  can  be  allowed  to  remain  on 
the  vines  and  the  better  flavor  they  will  have.  It  is,  therefore,  essen- 
tial that  the  melons  be  placed  in  the  shade  as  soon  as  possible  after 
picking,  and  be  kept  shaded  until  they  are  loaded  into  the  car.  For 
the  same  reason,  riper  melons  can  be  shipped  under  the  refrigeration 
than  in  ventilated  cars.  It  is  also  true  that  melons  shipped  during 
excessively  hot  weather,  unless  under  refrigeration,  will  soften  more 
rapidly  than  those  shipped  during  cooler  weather.  The  condition  of 
the  vines  and  the  rapidity  of  ripening  of  the  melons  in  the  field  will 
also  have  a  bearing  upon  the  stage  of  maturity  at  which  they  should 
be  picked.  Early  in  the  shipping  season,  when  the  vines  are  in  full 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  81 

vigor  and  the  melons  ripening  slowly,  the  fruits  may  safely  be  left 
upon  the  vines  until  more  mature  than  would  be  safe  later  in  the 
season  when  the  plants  have  become  somewhat  weakened,  or,  by  rea- 
son of  excessive  heat,  the  melons  are  ripening  very  rapidly.  Melons 
should  not  be  picked  at  the  same  degree  of  maturity  under  different 
conditions  of  ripening,  methods  of  transportation,  and  distances  from 
market. 

While  it  is  true  that  no  rule  can  be  given  for  picking  melons 
that  will  apply  under  all  conditions,  and  that  the  grower  must  exer- 
cise judgment  in  reference  to  each  day's  picking,  the  ideal  will  be 
attained  when  the  conditions  are  such  that  the  melons  will  reach  the 
market  in  the  best  condition  if  picked  as  soon  as  the  fruit  will  part 
readily  from  the  stem  when  the  latter  is  pressed  with  the  thumb  or 
finger.  There  is  a  tendency  among  some  growers  to  pick  consider- 
ably before  this  point  has  been  reached,  in  order  to  run  no  risk  of  the 
melons  becoming  soft  in  transit.  In  fact,  some  growers  make  a  prac- 
tice of  picking  the  melons  before  a  crack  appears  about  the  stem  or 
any  change  of  color  takes  place,  even  on  the  under  side  of  the  fruit. 

Market  Demands. — While  various  types  of  muskmelon  may  be 
disposed  of  upon  a  local  market,  there  are  certain  types  which  are 
recognized  as  standards  in  the  large  city  markets;  and  it  is  seldom 
wise  to  attempt  to  force  upon  a  general  market  a  variety  not  recog- 
nized as  a  standard  in  that  particular  market.  In  the  Chicago  mar- 
ket the  sorts  most  in  demand  are  the  Netted  Gem,  or  Rocky  Ford 
type,  and  the  Osage.— (111.  E.  S.  124,  139;  F.  B.  255;  S.  Dak.  E.  S. 
67;  N.  Hamp.  E.  S.  70,  96;  N.  Y.  E.  S.  200;  N.  Mex.  E.  S.  63.) 

MELON — WATERMELON. 

The  cultivation  of  the  watermelon  is  practically  the  same  as  for 
the  muskmelon,  except  that  the  plants  grow  larger  and  require  more 
room  for  development  than  those  of  the  muskmelon.  Watermelons 
require  that  the  soil  should  contain  a  larger  percentage  of  sand  than 
muskmelons,  and  that  the  land  should  be  quite  rich.  Watermelons 
should  be  planted  10  feet  each  way  between  the  hills,  or  in  drills  10 
feet  apart  and  thinned  to  3  feet  apart  in  the  drills.  The  watermelon 
eeedlings  must  be  protected  from  the  cucumber  beetle  until  the  foli- 
age becomes  toughtened.  Watermelons  readily  group  themselves 
into  six  classes  based  upon  the  color  or  characteristics  of  the  skin  or 
external  appearance.  It  does  not  necessarily  follow  that  in  the  pro- 
posed classification  the  fruit  of  each  variety  will  all  be  of  the  same 
form  to  which  it  is  referred;  for,  as  every  melon  grower  knows,  the 
fruits  in  each  hill  vary  more  or  less ;  but  if  everything  is  normal  and 
favorable  for  their  development  the  characteristic  form  or  that  typ- 
ifying the  variety  will  predominate.  The  larger  the  experience  of 
the  grower,  the  easier  it  is  for  him  to  understand  these  various  types. 
In  order  to  get  the  true  type  of  each  variety,  it  is  important  that  the 
seeds  be  secured  directly  from  the  seedsman  who  first  introduced 
them  thus  avoiding  complications  or  errors. — (F.  B.  255;  N.  H.  E. 
S.  86;  Ind.  E.  S.  123;  N.  Mex.  E.  S.  63;  S.  Dak.  E.  S.  67.) 


82 


TEE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


I.  Light  Green 
Class 


II.  Medium  Green 
Class 


III.  Dark  Green 

Class 


IV.  Light  Striped 
Class 


.V.  Dull  Striped 

Class 


VI.  Mottled  Green 
Class 


Sweet  Heart  Type 
(oval  shape) 


(medium  shape) 
Monarch  Type, 
(Long  shape) 

Icing  Type, 
(oval  shape) 

(medium  shape) 
Jackson  Type, 
(long  shape) 

Black  Spanish  Type 
(oval  shape) 

(medium  shape) 
Boss  Type, 
(long  shape) 

Kolb's  Gem  Type, 

(oval  shape) 
Cuban  Queen  Type, 

(medium  shape) 
Rattlesnake  Type, 

(long  shape) 

Pride  of  Georgia  Type, 

(oval  shape) 
Christmas  Type, 

(medium  shape) 
Favorite  Type, 

(long  shape) 

Nabob  Type, 

(oval  shape) 
Phinney  Type, 

(medium  long  shape) 


MUSTARD. 

Almost  any  good  soil  will  produce  a  crop  of  mustard.  The  basal 
leaves  of  mustard  are  used  for  greens,  and  as  the  plants  require  but 
a  short  time  to  reach  the  proper  stage  for  use  frequent  sowings  should 
be  made.  Sow  the  seeds  thickly  in  drills  as  early  as  possible  in  the 
spring,  or  for  late  use  sow  the  seeds  in  September  or  October.  The 
forms  of  white  mustard,  of  which  the  leaves  are  often  curled  and 
frilled,  are  generally  used.  Mustard  greens  are  cooked  like  spinach. 
—(P.  B.  255;  Mich.  E.  S.  20;  La.  E.  S.  90.) 

NASTURTIUM. 

The  hardiness  and  unsurpassed  beauty  of  this  plant  should 
make  it  a  favorite  near  every  home.  The  seed  pods  just  before  begin- 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  83 

ning  to  ripen  make  a  delicious  flavoring  for  pickles.— (Mich.  E.  8. 
20;  S.  Dak.E.  S.  68.) 

NEW  ZEALAND  SPINACH. 

The  plant  known  as  New  Zealand  spinach  is  not  a  true  spinach, 
but  grows  much  larger  and  should  be  planted  in  rows  3  feet  apart, 
with  the  plants  12  to  18  inches  apart  in  the  row.  Some  difficulty 
may  be  experienced  in  getting  the  seeds  to  germinate,  and  they 
should  be  soaked  one  or  two  hours  in  hot  water  before  planting.  New 
Zealand  spinach  is  satisfactory  for  growing  in  warm  climates,  as  it 
withstands  heat  better  than  the  ordinary  spinach.  The  fleshy  leaves 
and  tender  stems  are  cooked  the  same  as  spinach. 
OKKA  (Gumbo). 

This  plant  may  be  grown  throughout  the  greater  portion  of  the 
United  States,  but  only  one  crop  can  be  produced  during  a  season  in 
the  northern  part  of  the  country.  In  the  region  around  New  Orleans 
successive  plantings  are  made  and  a  constant  supply  is  maintained. 
The  plant  is  of  a  tropical  nature  and  will  not  endure  frost,  but  the 
pods  begin  to  be  produced  very  soon  after  the  plants  start  into  rapid 
growth  and  continue  to  form  for  several  weeks,  especially  if  all  pods 
are  removed  while  young  and  no  seeds  allowed  to  ripen  upon  the 
plants. 

Soil  and  Its  Preparation. — The  soil  upon  which  okra  can  be 
most  successfully  grown  is  a  rich  mellow  loam,  plowed  rather  deeply 
and  well  worked  over  with  pulverizing  tools.  After  the  seedlings  be- 
come established  and  the  roots  get  a  firm  hold  of  the  soil,  the  growth 
is  very  rapid  and  a  large  amount  of  available  plant  food,  especially 
of  a  nitrogenous  nature,  is  required.  Quick-acting  commercial  fer- 
tilizers may  be  applied  in  moderate  quantities,  but  these  should  be 
well  mixed  with  the  soil.  The  same  conditions  that  will  produce 
good  cotton  or  corn  will  be  found  suitable  for  the  production  of  okra. 

Planting  the  Seed. — Throughout  the  Northern  States  planting 
should  be  done  as  early  as  possible  in  spring,  or  as  soon  as  the  soil  is 
warm  enough  for  the  planting  of  general  garden  seeds.  In  the 
Southern  States,  where  a  continuous  supply  is  desired,  successive 
seedings  of  four  or  five  weeks  apart  should  be  made.  Plant  in  rows 
3%  feet  apart  for  the  dwarf  types,  and  4%  feet  for  the  larger-grow- 
ing varieties.  Scatter  the  seeds  in  drills,  or  plant  loosely  in  hills,  as 
with  corn,  and  cover  to  a  depth  of  1  or  2  inches,  according  to  the 
compactness  and  moisture  content  of  the  soil.  The  seeds  may  be 
planted  with  any  good  seed  drill,  but  when  placed  in  hills  they 
should  be  separated  3  or  4  inches  to  allow  space  for  the  development 
of  the  stems.  If  the  soil  is  reasonably  warm,  germination  will  take 
place  within  a  few  days,  but  should  there  be  a  heavy  rainfall  in  the 
mean  time  the  soil  should  be  lightly  cultivated  between  the  rows  and 
the  crust  broken  over  the  seed  by  means  of  an  iron  rake. 

Cultivation. — As  soon  as  the  plants  are  well  established  they  may 
be  thinned  to  three  or  four  in  a  hill,  or,  if  grown  in  drills,  to  12  or 
14  inches  for  the  dwarf  and  18  to  24  inches  for  the  ^larger  growing 
varieties.  Where  vacant  places  occur  from  failure  in  germination 
they  may  be  filled  in  by  transplanting.  Cultivate  as  in  the  case  of 


g4  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

corn  or  cotton,  keeping  the  ground  well  stirred  and  the  surface  soil 
loose,  especially  while  the  plants  are  small.  After  the  leaves  begin  to 
shade  the  ground,  very  little  cultivation  is  necessary  except  to^keep 
the  land  free  from  weeds.  A  poor  soil  and  insufficient  moisture 
will  yield  pods  of  inferior  size  and  quality,  and  irrigation  may  often 
be  desirable  in  order  to  produce  a  marketable  crop.  Okra  is  some- 
times grown  as  a  mixed  crop  with  cotton,  the  okra  being  removed 
before  the  cotton  begins  to  mature;  but  this  practice  is  not  to  be 
recommended,  as  both  crops  draw  heavily  upon  the  nitrogenous  mat- 
ter of  the  soil.  The  okra  plants  will  usually  continue  to  grow  until 
late  in  the  season,  but  after  a  time  the  pods  are  not  so  large  or  tender 
as  those  produced  earlier  in  the  season.  As  the  pod  is  the  only  part 
of  the  plant  ordinarily  used  for  food,  it  is  desirable  to  secure  a  rapid 
and  continuous  growth  in  order  to  produce  the  greatest  quantity  of 
marketable  pods. 

Gathering  and  Marketing. — As  soon  as  the  plants  begin  to  set 
fruit  the  pods  should  be  gathered  each  day,  preferably  in  the  evening. 
The  flower  opens  during  the  night  or  early  morning  and  fades  after 
a  few  hours.  The  pollen  must  be  transferred  during  the  early  morn- 
ing, and  the  pod  thus  formed  will  usually  be  ready  for  gathering 
during  the  latter  part  of  the  following  day,  although  the  time 
required  to  produce  a  marketable  pod  varies  according  to  the  age 
of  the  plant  and  the  conditions  under  which  it  is  grown.  The  pods 
should  always  be  gathered,  irrespective  of  size,  while  they  are  still 
soft  and  before  the  seeds  are  half  grown. — (F.  B.  232.) 

Cultivation  for  Seed. — If  okra  is  to  be  grown  for  seed  alone,  only 
one  variety  should  be  planted,  or  if  more  than  one  variety  is  grown 
each  should  be  separated  from  the  other  by  at  least  one-fourth  mile 
to  prevent  mixing.  When  several  varieties  of  okra  are  grown  near 
each  other  no  seed  should  be  saved  except  that  produced  by  the 
method  of  bagging  and  hand  pollination.  To  secure  seed  in  this  way 
is  a  rather  simple  matter  when  only  a  small  quantity  is  required, 
as  the  pods  formed  on  a  single  day  when  the  plants  are  at  their  best 
will  produce  enough  seed.  The  bags  should  be  tied  over  the  flower 
buds  in  the  evening  and  the  pollen  transferred  early  the  following 
day.  Replace  the  bags  immediately,  as  an  insect  or  the  wind  may 
at  any  moment  bring  to  the  flower  the  pollen  of  another  variety. 
After  going  over  all  the  flowers  of  a  variety  it  is  well  to  return  to  the 
first  three  or  four  and  repollinate  them  in  order  that  they  may  receive 
pollen  from  different  individual  flowers  of  the  same  variety  and  to 
insure  perfect  fertilization.  Before  beginning  upon  another  variety 
the  brush  used  for  transferring  the  pollen  should  be  thoroughly 
cleaned.  If  a  brush  is  not  available,  use  a  portion  of  a  young  leaf, 
folded  together  between  the  thumb  and  finger,  to  convey  the  pollen. 
This  improvised  brush  should  be  discarded  and  a  new  one  adopted 
for^each  variety.  The  bags  need  remain  only  during  the  day  on 
which  the  pollen  is  transferred  and  may  be  replaced  by  a  tag  to 
mark  the  pod.  The  seed  should  remain  on  the  plant  until  fully  ripe. 

The  common  bumblebee  is  a  frequent  visitor  to  the  flowers  of  the 
okra,  and  a  single  bee  was  on  one  morning  observed  to  pollinate  over 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  85 

500  flowers,  comprising  more  than  50  separate  samples.  In  this 
instance  practically  every  flower  in  the  field  was  visited  and  polli- 
nated, although  no  pollen  had  previously  been  transferred.  This 
observation  demonstrated  the  necessity  of  great  care  to  prevent  cross- 
pollination.  Our  variety  tests  with  okra  have  shown  that  seed  grow- 
ers have  not  always  succeeded  in  keeping  the  varieties  separate,  and 
as  a  result  there  has  been  a  gradual  blending  together  of  all  the  sorts. 
In  many  of  the  samples  all  the  sorts  usually  grown  are  represented. 

Uses. — The  principal  use  of  okra  is  in  soups  and  various  culinary 
preparations  in  which  meats  form  an  important  factor,  as  in  the1 
so-called  gumbo  soups,  to  which  the  young  pods  impart  an  excellent 
flavor,  besides  giving  a  pleasant  mucilaginous  consistency.  The 
young  seeds  are  occasionally  cooked  in  the  same  way  as  green  peas, 
and  the  very  young  and  tender  pods  are  boiled  and  served  as  a  salad 
with  French  dressing.  Both  the  stem  and  the  mature  pod  contain  a 
fibre  which  is  employed  in  the  manufacture  of  paper.  No  copper, 
brass,  or  iron  cooking  vessels  should  be  employed  in  preparing  okra, 
as  the  metal  will  be  absorbed  and  the  pods  discolored  or  even  ren- 
dered poisonous.  The  cooking  should  be  done  in  agate,  porcelain,  or 
earthen  ware.— (F.  B.  232.) 

Varieties. — There  are  three  general  types  of  okra,  viz.,  tall  green, 
dwarf  green,  and  lady  finger.  Each  of  these  is  again  divided  accord- 
ing to  the  length  and  color  of  the  pods,  making  in  all  six  classes  or 
varieties,  namely,  tall  green,  long  pod ;  tall  green,  short  pod ;  dwarf 
green,  long  pod;  dwarf  green,  short  pod;  lady  finger,  white  pod; 
and  lady  finger,  green  pod.  All  variations  from  these  are  merely 
the  results  of  mixtures,  no  true  crosses  or  hybrids  being  formed. 
These  mixtures  are  easily  separated  and  referred  to  the  parent  type, 
and  a  little  attention  to  roguing  and  selection  is  necessary  in  order  to 
keep  the  varieties  pure.  It  is  essential  that  the  parietal  strain  should 
be  pure  in  order  that  a  uniform  and  marketable  lot  of  pods  may  be 
produced.— (F.  B.  232,  255;  U.  Id.  E.  S.  10.) 

ONIONS. 

The  onion  is  exceptional  in  that  it  will  thrive  under  a  very  wide 
range  of  climatic  and  soil  conditions.  There  is  perhaps  no  extended 
area  in  the  United  States,  except  the  mountainous  regions,  where  the 
onion  can  not  be  successfully  grown.  For  best  results  a  temperate 
climate  without  great  extremes  of  heat  and  cold  should  be  selected. 
Onion  culture  is  rarely  profitable  in  regions  where  the  climate  does 
not  change  or  has  no  definite  seasons  of  heat  and  cold  or  wet  and  dry. 
Naturally  the  onion  does  best  under  rather  cool  conditions,  with 
plenty  of  moisture  during  its  early  stages,  but  requires  a  reasonable 
degree  of  heat,  together  with  dryness  of  both  soil  and  atmosphere,  for 
its  proper  ripening. 

Soils. — The  essential  requirements  of  a  soil  upon  which  to  grow 
onions  profitably  are  a  high  state  of  fertility,  good  mechanical  con- 
dition in  order  that  the  crop  may  be  easily  worked,  sufficient  drainage, 
and  freedom  from  weeds.  If  a  soil  has  the  proper  mechanical  proper- 
ties— that  is,  if  it  contains  sufficient  sand  and  humus  to  be  easily 
worked,  is  retentive  of  moisture  and  fertilizers,  and  is  capable  of 


86  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

drainage— all  other  requirements  can  be  met.  As  a  general  rule  new 
land  is  not  adapted  to  onion  growing  until  it  has  been  worked  one  or 
two  years  with  other  crops.  Onions  should  follow  some  crop  that  has 
been  kept  under  the  hoe  and  free  from  weeds  the  previous  season. 
Corn,  beans,  and  potatoes  are  suitable  crops  with  wnich  to  precede 
onions.  Muck  and  sandy  soils  may  in  some  cases  be  brought  to  a 
suitable  condition  for  onions  the  first  season,  but  the  fitting  will  have 
to  be  very  thoroughly  performed.  The  land  should  be  plowed  in  the 
autumn,  then  replowed  in  the  spring,  after  which  numerous  harrow- 
ings  and  doubtless  some  hand  work  will  be  required  to  get  the  soil 
in  suitable  shape.  If  necessary  to  manure  the  land  heavily  before 
planting  to  onions,  it  will  be  desirable  to  plant  to  some  farm  crop 
one  season,  then  apply  the  manure  during  the  autumn  in  order  to 
give  it  time  to  become  incorporated  with  the  soil.  Owing  to  the 
value  of  good  onion  land  it  would  not  be  advisable  to  devote  it  to 
general  farm  crops  for  any  extended  period,  although  corn  is  fre- 
quently planted  and  oats  or  rye  are  sometimes  used  in  the  North. 
Cowpeas  may  be  of  great  service  in  bringing  new  land  into  shape  for 
planting  to  onions. 

Preparation  of  the  Soil. — Assuming  that  the  land  intended  1 or 
planting  to  onions  is  capable  of  being  brought  to  a  good  mechanical 
condition,  fertile,  well  drained,  and  reasonably  free  from  weed  seeds, 
the  first  step  in  the  production  of  the  crop  will  be  to  plow  moderately 
deep,  then  harrow,  disk,  roll,  and  drag  until  the  soil  is  smooth  and 
mellow  to  a  depth  of  4  or  5  inches.  On  soils  that  are  naturally  well 
drained  and  where  surface  water  can  not  accumulate,  the  plowing 
may  be  done  in  large  blocks,  but  where  the  opposite  conditions  are 
found  or  irrigation  is  practiced  it  may  be  necessary  to  plow  the  land 
in  narrow  beds.  In  the  case  of  insufficient  drainage  it  will  be  desir- 
able to  throw  the  soil  together  into  beds,  leaving  a  double  furrow 
between  each  bed  to  carry  off  surplus  water.  Where  the  flooding 
system  of  irrigation  is  practiced  the  beds  must  be  leveled  and  a  system 
of  ditches  and  ridges  provided  for  distributing  and  controlling  the 
water. 

Crop  Rotation. — Onions  should  not  be  planted  on  the  same  piece 
of  land  year  after  year,  and  some  system  of  crop  rotation  should  be 
maintained.  Care  should  be  taken,  however,  to  use  crops  in  the 
rotation  that  will  not  be  exhaustive  of  the  high  fertility  necessary  in 
the  onion  land.  During  the  years  when  the  land  is  not  devoted  to 
onions  it  can  be  planted  to  some  truck  crop  that  will  give  a  return 
that  will  justify  the  application  of  large  quantities  of  fertilizers,  or, 
better  to  a  leguminous  crop  to  be  turned  under  as  green  manure. 
Continuous  cropping  with  onions  will  cause  the  land  to  become  in- 
fested with  both  disease  and  insect  enemies  that  will  sooner  or  later 
injure  the  crop  to  such  an  extent  as  to  render  it  unprofitable. 

Fertilizers. — As  the  onion  is  an  intensive  crop  and  yields  great 
quantities  of  marketable  bulbs  for  the  area  planted,  the  grower  is 
justified  in  manuring  heavily.  It  would  be  difficult  indeed  to  make 
the  soil  too  rich  for  onions,  provided  the^manures  are  thoroughly  in- 
corporated with  the  soil.  A  heavy  application  of  fresh  raw  manure 


FIELD  'AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  87 

just  before  planting  would  have  an  injurious  effect,  but  where  the 
manure  is  well  rotted  and  uniformly  applied  there  is  nothing  to  be 
feared. 

Animal  Manures. — There  is  perhaps  no  fertilizer  so  well  adapted 
to  the  production  of  onions  as  plenty  of  clean,  well-composted  stable 
manure,  and  the  quantity  and  frequency  of  application  will  depend 
upon  the  nature  of  the  land  under  cultivation.  All  stable  manure 
used  on  onion  land  should  be  well  composted  before  use  and  then 
spread  upon  the  land  several  months  before  planting  to  onions.  In 
the  Northern  States  the  manure  may  be  applied  during  the  autumn 
and  well  disked  into  the  soil.  The  land  can  then  be  allowed  to  lie 
in  the  rough  state  and  exposed  to  the  action  of  frost  during  the  winter, 
or  it  can  be  smoothed  and  seeded  to  rye,  in  which  case  it  will  be 
necessary  to  replow  during  the  early  springtime.  Large  quantities 
of  fresh  manure  applied  to  onion  land  just  before  planting  will  have 
a  tendency  to  produce  an  overgrowth  of  tops  at  the  expense  of  the 
bulbs.  This  is  especially  true  on  irrigated  lands  and  soils  that  are 
naturally  moist. 

Commercial  Fertilizers. — Where  there  is  an  abundance  of  humus 
matter  in  the  soil  the  onion  crop  will  be  greatly  benefited  by  moderate 
applications  of  high-grade  commercial  fertilizers.  Many  growers 
follow  the  practice  of  applying  only  a  part  of  the  fertilizer  at  planting 
time,  reserving  the  balance  to  be  put  on  as  a  top-dressing  at  some 
time  during  the  period  of  cultivation.  This  plan  is  especially  desir- 
able where  onions  are  grown  during  the  winter,  as  the  application  of 
highly  nitrogenous  fertilizers  in  the  autumn  is  liable  to  nromote  a 
soft  growth  that  will  be  injured  by  cold.  If  the  fertilizer  is  not  put 
on  until  cold  weather  is  over,  the  crop  may  be  forced  without  danger 
of  injury.  For  this  purpose  only  those  fertilizers  of  a  very  available 
form  will  answer. 

Planting  and  Thinning. — Experienced  growers  are  frequently 
able  by  using  extreme  care  in  regulating  the  drills  to  distribute  onion 
seed  in  rows  where  the  crop  is  to  mature  so  that  little  thinning  will 
be  necessary.  Thinning  is  generally  left  until  the  time  of  the  first 
hand  weeding,  when  all  thick  bunches  along  the  rows  are  thinned  to 
a  uniform  stand  of  eight  or  ten  plants  to  the  foot.  It  is  always  well, 
however,  to  allow  for  considerable  loss  of  plants,  and  unless  the  plants 
are  so  thick  as  to  actually  crowd,  thinning  will  not  be  necessary. 

Transplanting. — The  transplanting  process,  often  spoken  of  as 
the  "new  onion  culture,"  is  merely  a  modification  of  the  regular 
seeding  method.  The  objects  gained  by  transplanting  are  an  earlier 
crop,  a  uniform  stand,  and  bulbs  of  more  regular  size.  Where  a 
small  area  is  to  be  grown,  the  transplanting  process  is  the  ideal 
method,  but  for  large  acreages  and  where  labor  is  difficult  to  obtain, 
this  would  not  be  practical.  After  transplanting,  the  seedlings  will 
require  rain  or  watering  in  order  that  they  may  start,  and  for  this 
reason  the  transplanting  process  is  practically  limited  to  areas  where 
some  form  of  irrigation  is  available.  In  growing  onions  by  the  trans- 
planting method  the  seed  is  sown  in  greenhouses,  hotbeds,  cold 
frames,  or  specially  prepared  beds  at  the  rate  of  S1/^  or  4  pounds  for 


88  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

each  acre  to  be  planted.  When  the  seedlings  are  grown  under  cover, 
they  are  given  the  necessary  attention  regarding  watering  and  venti- 
lation and  kept  growing  quite  rapidly  until  near  the  time  for  setting 
them  in  the  open  ground.  As  planting  time  approaches,  the  seedlings 
are  "hardened"  or  prepared  for  transplanting  by  increased  ventilation 
and  exposure  and  by  withholding  water.  When  ready  to  transplant, 
the  seedlings  should  be  somewhat  smaller  than  a  lead  pencil  and 
rather  stocky.  The  plants  are  lifted  from  the  seed  bed  and  the  roots 
and  tops  both  trimmed  somewhat. 

Methods  of  Tillage. — The  cultural  requirements  of  the  onion 
are  frequent  shallow  stirring  of  the  soil  and  freedom  from  weeds. 
The  feeding  roots  of  the  onion  run  close  to  the  surface  of  the  soil 
and  should  not  be  disturbed  by  deep  cultivation.  Sometimes  a 
heavy  rain  immediately  after  seeding  will  so  pack  the  surface  that 
the  seedlings  can  not  break  through.  Under  such  circumstances  it  will 
be  necessary  to  slightly  break  the  surface  by  means  of  a  steel  rake 
or  a  rake-like  attachment  on  a  cultivator.  As  soon  as  the  plants  are 
up  and  the  rows  can  be  followed  the  cultivator  should  be  started  to 
loosen  the  soil,  which  is  always  more  or  less  compacted  during 
seeding.  It  is  well-nigh  impossible  to  produce  a  crop  of  onions 
without  some  hand  weeding.  During  favorable  seasons  the  strictly 
hand  work  may  be  reduced  to  but  one  or  two  weedings,  but  a  greater 
number  will  be  necessary  during  rainy  seasons.  The  work  of  hand 
weeding  may  be  facilitated  by  the  use  of  some  of  the  small  hand 
tools  designed  for  the  purpose.  Among  these  tools  might  be  men- 
tioned the  onion  hoe,  the  hand  weeder,  and  the  thinning  or  weeding 
hook. 

Irrigation. — Outside  of  the  areas  where  irrigation  methods  are 
depended  upon  for  the  production  of  general  crops  it  is  not  cus- 
tomary to  use  artificial  watering  in  the  growing  of  onions. 

Harvesting. — In  the  North  the  bulbs  are  allowed  to  become  as 
as  ripe  as  possible  before  removing  them  from  the  soil.  Growers 
prefer  that  the  tops  ripen  down  and  shrivel  and  that  the  outer  skin 
of  the  bulbs  be  dry  before  they  are  pulled.  To  the  southward  where 
the  onions  are  not  cured  so  thoroughly,  they  are  often  pulled  about 
the  time  that  the  tops  begin  to  break  and  fall.  The  ripening  process 
may  often  be  hastened  by  rolling  a  very  light  roller  or  a  barrel  over 
the  tops  to  break  them  down.  This  process  is  frequently  spoken  of 
as  "barreling."  Where  the  bulbs  are  practically  upon  the  surface 
they  may  be  pulled  by  hand  and  thrown  in  windrows  consisting  of 
eight  or  ten  onion  rows.  If  the  onion  bulbs  are  considerably  covered 
with  soil  it  will  be  necessary  to  employ  a  one-horse  plow  or  a  culti- 
vator with  a  sweep  attached  for  lifting  them.  In  any  case  it  will  be 
necessary  to  gather  them  from  the  soil  by  hand.  After  lying  in  the 
windrows  for  several  days  and  being  stirred  occasionally  with  wooden 
rakes  they  are  gone  over  and  the  tops  removed  either  by  twisting  or 
cutting  with  ordinary  sheep  shears.  In  cases  where  very  bright  color 
is  important  as  with  fancy  White  Globe  onions,  and  this  would  be 
injured  by  exposure  to  the  sun  and  rain,  the  bulbs  are  cured  in  long, 
narrow,  low  ricks  formed  by  two  rows  of  onions  laid  with  the  bulbs 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  89 

regularly  to  the  center,  tops  to  the  outside,  the  rows  a  few  inches 
apart  at  the  bottom  of  the  rick  but  coming  together  at  the  top,  and 
the  top  of  the  rick  covered  by  straw  or  boards  to  shed  the  rain.  As 
the  tops  are  removed  the  bulbs  are  generally  placed  in  crates  for 
drying.  In  some  sections  onion-topping  machines  are  employed, 
the  bulbs  being  hauled  from  the  field  to  a  central  location  and  run 
through  the  topper.  These  machines  remove  the  tops,  grade  the 
bulbs,  and  deliver  them  into  the  crates  or  bags.  If  crates  are  not 
employed  for  curing,  the  bulbs  are  allowed  to  lie  in  the  windrows 
for  some  time,  and  are  then  either  put  into  sacks  or  hauled  to  slat 
cribs,  where  they  complete  the  curing  process.  Too  long  exposure 
to  hot  sunshine  will  injure  the  bulbs.  Where  the  bulbs  are 
extremely  dry  at  the  time  of  their  removal  from  the  soil,  they  may 
be  allowed  to  lie  in  the  windrows  for  a  few  days  only,  and  then  sorted 
and  cleaned  in  the  field  ready  for  packing  and  marketing. 

Storage. — In  order  that  onions  should  keep  well  when  stored 
they  must  be  well  ripened  and  thoroughly  cured.  Those  that  are 
immature,  soft,  or  "thick  necks"  should  never  be  placed  in  storage 
but  sold  as  soon  as  gathered  for  whatever  price  they  will  bring. 
Good  storage  onions  will  rattle  almost  like  blocks  of  wood  when 
poured  from  one  crate  to  another.  In  order  that  the  bulbs  may 
remain  bright  and  of  attractive  appearance  they  should  not  be 
allowed  to  lie  exposed  to  the  weather,  but  should  be  hauled  and  stored 
in  open  sheds  just  as  soon  as  they  may  safely  be  placed  in  one-bushel 
crates.  After  the  bulbs  have  remained  in  drying  sheds  or  cribs  for 
several  weeks  they  will  be  ready  for  screening  and  removal  to  the 
storehouse.  In  handling  onions  it  is  the  rule  to  pass  them  over  a 
screen  each  time  they  are  moved,  as  in  this  way  the  loose  skins  are 
removed  and  any  soft  or  decaying  bulbs  may  be  sorted  out.  The 
essentials  for  the  successful  storage  of  onions  are  plenty  of  ventila- 
tion, storing  in  small  quantities,  a  comparatively  low  temperature, 
dryness,  and  safety  from  actual  freezing.  Any  building  wherein  the 
above  conditions  may  be  secured  will  answer. 

Marketing. — Large  quantities  of  onions  are  sold  and  shipped 
direct  from  the  fields  where  they  are  grown.  A  part  of  the  crop  is 
held  in  temporary  storage  until  late  autumn  or  early  winter. 
During  recent  years  the  winter  storage  of  onions  has  become  of  great 
importance  and  the  finest  stock  is  held  for  late  winter  deliveries. 
The  Bermuda  crop  from  the  southwestern  part  of  the  country  comes 
upon  the  market  during  April  and  May,  so  that  most  of  the  storage 
onions  are  disposed  of  before  that  time.  In  marketing  onions  the 
first  essential  is  to  properly  grade  and  clean  the  bulbs,  in  order  that 
they  may  present  an  attractive  appearance  when  offered  for  sale. 
Ordinarily  the  bulbs  are  separated  into  three  grades — primes, 
seconds,  and  picklers.  The  primes  include  all  those  of  l1/^  inches 
in  diameter  and  larger,  and  the  seconds  consist  of  those  from  %  inch 
to  1%  inches  in  diameter,  while  all  those  that  will  pass  through  & 
%-inch  screen  are  sold  for  pickling  purposes.  The  grading  is  gener* 
ally  done  in  the  field  during  the  cleaning  process,  but  as  onions 


90  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

shrink  considerably  while  in  storage  it  is  necessary  to  regrade  before 
placing  upon  the  market. 

Weight  of  Onions.  —  The  legal  weight  of  onions  per  bushel 
yaries  somewhat  in  different  States,  but  56  pounds  of  dry  onions  are 
generally  considered  a  standard  bushel. 

Important  Commercial  Varieties.  —  The  varieties  of  onions  that 
have  distinctively  yellow,  white,  and  red  skins  and  are  of  the  glob- 
ular type  are  of  greatest  commercial  importance.  Among  the  vari- 
eties that  belong  to  the  yellow  globe  class  are  the  Prizetaker,  Yellow 
Danvers,  Yellow  Globe,  Danvers,  Southport  Yellow  Globe,  and  Ohio 
Yellow  Globe.  The  principal  white  varieties  are  Southport  White 
Globe,  New  Queen,  Italian  Tripoli,  Silver  Skin,  and  White  Silver 
King.  Among  the  more  important  red  sorts  are  Red  Globe,  Red 
Wethersfield,  and  Australian  Brown.  The  principal  Bermuda 


varieties  are  Red  Bermuda,  White  Bermuda  and  Crystal  Wax.    The 

type.     The  red  color- 
ation of  the  Bermuda  onion  is  not  distinctive  like  that  of  the  Red 


Bermuda  onions  are  all  of  the  more  or  less  flat  type.     The  red  col 


Wethersfield  or  Red  Globe  varieties,  but  is  lighter  in  color.  The 
famous  Denia  onion  is  somewhat  of  the  Prizetaker  type,  is  light 
yellow  in  color,  grows  to  a  large  size,  and  is  mild  in  flavor.  In  the 
selection  of  varieties  for  any  particular  locality  the  soil  conditions 
and  market  requirements  should  both  be  considered.  Those  adapted 
to  the  muck  soils  are  the  yellow  and  red  sorts.  For  alluvial  and 
prairie  soils  the  red  and  brown  varieties  are  to  be  preferred,  while  all 
kinds  do  well  on  the  sandy  loams  and  light  soils.  A  cleaner,  better 
grade  of  white  onions  can  generally  be  produced  on  light  or  sandy 
soils  than  on  muck  or  clay  loams.  Those  of  the  Bermuda,  Spanish, 
and  Egyptian  types  flourish  ^  on  the  deep,  rich  alluvial  soils  of  the 
river  bottoms  and  delta  regions.  Certain  of  our  markets  show  a 
decided  preference  for  onions  belonging  to  a  particular  type.  The 
red  and  brown  varieties  find  ready  sale  on  the  markets  of  the  Middle 
West,  while  onions  of  the  yellow  and  white,  varieties  are  preferred  in 
the  eastern  cities.  Onions  will  withstand  long-distance  shipment, 
those  of  the  Red  Globe  type  being  generally  more  subject  to  injury 
than  the  yellow  and  brown  sorts.  Some  of  the  white  varieties  also 
have  a  thin  skin  and  are  easily  injured.  It  should  be  the  aim  of 
every  grower  to  employ  varieties  that  will  withstand  handling  and  at 
the  same  time  find  ready  sale  on  the  market.  Other  types  of  onions 
are  top  onions,  multipliers,  garlic,  and  leeks,  which  are  planted  to 
some  extent  for  marketing  purposes. 

Bermuda  Onions.  —  The  production  of  Bermuda  onions  in  the 
United  States  is  a  comparatively  new  industry  and  has  thus  far  been 
undertaken  mainly  in  Texas  and  California.  Soils  of  a  silty  or 
alluvial  nature  are  suited  to  the  production  of  Bermuda  onions,  and 
those  containing  considerable  sand  are  most  desirable.  The  Ber- 
muda requires  a  very  rich  soil  for  the  best  results,  and  this  can  only 
be  obtained  by  first  selecting  a  good  soil  and  then  manuring  heavily. 
The  Bermuda  onion  as  grown  in  this  country  is  a  winter  crop  ;  there- 
fore, mild  slimatic  conditions  are  required.  While  the  plants  would 
(withstand  considerable  freezing,  their  growth  is  seriously  checked  by 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  91 

cold  weather,  and  the  crop  will  not  mature  in  time  for  the  early 
market  if  grown  to  the  northward.  The  cultural  methods  employed 
in  the  growing  of  Bermuda  onions  are  essentially  the  same  as  those 
for  ordinary  onions.  As  the  greater  portion  of  the  crop  is  grown  in 
a  region  which  has  no  regular  rainfall,  irrigation  methods  are 
employed  almost  universally.  The  greater  part  of  the  crop  is  grown 
by  the  transplanting  process  and  a  great  amount  of  hand  labor  is 
required.  Bermuda  onions  are  harvested  as  early  as  possible,  gener- 
ally before  the  tops  have  become  fully  ripened.  Phenomenal  yields 
of  34,000  and  35,000  pounds  of  Bermuda  onions  are  frequently 
made  on  an  acre  of  land,  but  this  is  far  above  the  general  average, 
which  is  in  the  neighborhood  of  10,000  or  12,000  pounds  to  the  acre. 
Many  fields,  especially  when  planted  for  the  first  time,  do  not  yield 
as  much  as  10,000  pounds  to  the  ^acre.  On  land  that  has  been 
heavily  manured  and  planted  to  onions  for  several  years  the  yield 
averages  about  16,000  pounds.  The  best  Bermuda-onion  farms  are 
valued  at  $300  to  $500  an  acre.  In  order  to  prove  profitable,  the 
growing  of  Bermuda  onions  should  be  conducted  on  a  comparatively 
large  scale.  The  necessary  land  and  irrigation  facilities  will  require 
the  initial  outlay  of  from  $10,000  to  $30,000,  and  the  running 
expenses  are  quite  heavy ;  Labor  can  "be  secured  at  a  low  price,  but 
is  correspondingly  inefficient  and  often  not  to.  be  had  in  sufficient 
quantities.  Furthermore,  the  markets  are  now  pretty  well  supplied 
with  Bermuda  onions,  and  persons  who  desire"  to  engage  in  their 
production  are  advised  to  investigate  every  phase  of  the  industry 
before  embarking  too  heavily  in  it.  The  expansion  of  the  Bermuda- 
onion  industry  is  limited  by  the  'facts  that  a  large  supply  of  bulbs 
can  be  grown  on  a  comparatively  small  area,  that  the  distance  to 
market  is  great,  that  the  product  is  perishable,  and  that  the  markets 
will  consume  only  a  limited  quantity  at  the  prices  at  which  the  crop 
can  be  sold  with  profit. 

Green  Onions  for  Bunching. — Another  phase  of  onion  culture 
that  is  of  considerable  importance  in  certain  localities  is  the  produc- 
tion of  young  bunching  onions  for  the  early  spring  trade.  In 
several  sections  along  the  South  Atlantic  coast  the  growing  of  this 
class  of  onions  is  quite  an  enterprise.  Many^  persons  who  are 
engaged  in  other  lines  of  work  follow  the  practice  of  growing  a  small 
area  of  bunching  onions  as  a  side  issue.  The  varieties  known  as 
multipliers  and  top  onions  are  generally  employed  for  this  purpose ; 
however,  bunching  onions  are  sometimes  grown  from  ordinary  sets, 
from  inferior  and  damaged  large  onions,  and  from  seed.  The  mul- 
tipliers and  top  onions  are  the  only  kinds  adapted  for  this  work 
on  a  large  scale.  For  growing  bunching  onions  the  bulbs  or  sets  are 
planted  during  the  autumn  either  in  beds  or  in  rows  12  or  14  inches 
apart  with  the  bulbs  quite  close  in  the  rows.  The  bulbs  will  start 
growing  within  a  short  time  and  make  more  or  less  growth  during 
the  winter.  As  soon  as  the  weather  becomes  warm  during  the  first 
months  of  spring  the  onions  make  a  rapid  growth  and  are  ready  for 
marketing  about  the  time  peach  trees  begin  to  bloom.  In  marketing 
this  class  of  onions  the  young  shoots  are  pulled,  the  roots  trimmed. 


92  TEE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

and  the  outside  peeled  off,  leaving  the  stem  white  and  clean.  The 
onions  are  then  tied  in  small  bunches  by  means  of  a  soft  white  string, 
the  tops  trimmed  slightly,  and  the  bunches  packed  in  crates  or 
baskets  for  shipment  or  sale  on  the  local  market.  This  phase  of  the 
onion  industry  is  limited  to  small  plantings  and  is  well  suited  to  the 
needs  of  the  general  market  garden.  During  the  springtime  and 
early  summer  large  quantities  of  ordinary  young  onions  are  pulled 
when  the  bulb  is  about  the  size  of  a  fifty-cent  piece,  the  roots  and 
tops  are  trimmed,  and  they  are  then  bunched  and  sold  for  stewing 
purposes.  So  far  as  known,  this  class  of  onions  is  not  shipped  to  any 
great  extent,  but  is  sold  mainly  on  local  markets. 

Home  Production  of  Onion  Seed. — The  bulbs,  or  "mother 
bulbs,"  as  they  are  commonly  called,  for  the  production  of  onion  seed 
should  be  grown  in  the  same  manner  as  those  intended  for  mar- 
keting, except  that  more  care  should  be  taken  throughout.  Some 
seed  growers  prefer  to  use  6  pounds  of  seed  to  an  acre  for  the  pro- 
duction of  seed  bulbs  instead  of  4  pounds,  as  ordinarily  used  in 
growing  for  market,  in  order  that  the  bulbs  may  crowd  and  not 
become  too  large.  The  planting,  culture,  and  harvesting  of  the 
bulbs  are  practically  the  same  as  for  first-class  marketable  stock. 
Onion-seed  growing  is  a  two-year  process  and  two  crops  are  con- 
stantly to  be  cared  for.  After  growing  the  bulbs  the  first  summer 
they  must  be  stored  over  winter  and  replanted  the  following  spring 
for  the  production  of  seed.  Meantime  the  crop  for  the  next  year's 
planting  must  be  coming  on  in  order^  to  have  a  crop  of  seed  every 
year.  The  first  requisite  for  the  growing  of  the  best  seed  is  a  clear- 
cut  ideal  of  the  exact  shape,  form,  color,  and  general  characteristics 
sought  in  the  variety  being  grown.  The  second  requisite  is  the 
growing  of  seed  from  bulbs  of  that  exact  type  for  the  greatest  possible 
number  of  generations.  Two  selections  should  be  made,  the  first 
to  include  but  a  small  number  of  the  very  finest  and  most  ideal  bulbs 
from  which  to  produce  the  stock  seed  to  be  used  the  following  year 
for  the  growing  of  the  seed  bulbs,  and  the  second  to  include  the  bulbs 
from  which  to  grow  the  supply  of  seed  for  the  market.  By  keeping 
the  very  best  stock  separate  and  using  the  product  for  propagation 
the  entire  strain  will  be  gradually  improved.  Bulbs  a  trifle  below 
the  ideal  market  size,  or  about  1%  to  2  inches  in  diameter,  are  the 
most  profitable  for  seed  production. 

Bulbs  that  are  to  be  used  for  seed  productions  should  be  allowed 
to  become  thoroughly  ripe  in  the  field.  After  pulling  they  should 
be  stored  in  crates  under  a  roof  where  they  will  have  plenty  of  ven- 
tilation and  be  protected  from  sun  and  rain.  Before  freezing 
weather  begins  the  onions  should  be  graded  and  removed  to  a  house 
where  both  ventilation  and  temperature  can  be  controlled.  The 
temperature  of  the  storage  house  should  at  no  time  be  so  low  as  to 
cause  .the  bulbs  to  become  frosted.  A  temperature  of  32°  F.  for  a 
short  period  will  do  no  harm,  but  should  not  be  allowed  to  continue. 
If  the  bulbs  become  frosted,  heated,  or  sweated  in  storage  they  will 
sprout  before  planting  time  and  be  greatly  injured  for  seed  purposes. 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  93 

In  general,  the  storage  conditions  should  be  the  same  as  for  market- 
able onions. 

The  proper  time  to  gather  the  seed  is  when  the  inside  of  the 
grain  has  reached  the  dough  stage.  Onion  seed  assumes  its  black 
color  very  early ;  in  fact,  before  it  has  passed  the  watery  stage  and 
formed  milk  in  the  grain.  This  change  of  color  is  no  indication  of 
ripeness  and  very  often  deceives  the  inexperienced  grower.  The 
heads  should  be  harvested  just  before  the  first-formed  seed  begins  to 
shatter  in  handling. 

Curing  the  Seed  Heads. — Any  building  having  a  tight  floor  and 
in  which  a  free  circulation  of  air  can  be  maintained  will  serve  as  a 
curing  place  for  onion  seed.  In  localities  where  rains  do  not  occur 
during  the  curing  period  the  seed  heads  are  frequently  dried  on 
sheets  of  canvas  stretched  over  frames  or  spread  upon  the  ground. 
For  curing  the  seed  in  houses,  wire-bottomed  racks  or  trays  placed 
one  above  the  other  are  generally  employed.  As  the  seed  is  stirred 
from  time  to  time  during  the  curing  process  considerable  of  it  will 
be  shattered  and  fall  upon  the  tray  below  or  finally  upon  the  floor. 
The  main  essentials  in  the  curing  of  onion  seed  are  to  spread  the 
heads  very  thinly,  not  over  two  heads  in  depth,  and  to  give  free  ven- 
tilation. Even  at  a  depth  of  3  inches  in  the  trays  it  will  be  necessary 
to  stir  them  very  often,  especially  during  damp  weather. 

Thrashing  and  Cleaning  the  Seed. — The  date  for  gathering  the 
seed  depends  upon  the  locality  and  climate,  but  as  a  rule  this  will  be 
about  midsummer.  The.  thrashing  and  cleaning  of  the  seed  are 
often  deferred  until  quite  late  in  the  autumn,  except  where  the 
curing  is  done  in  the  open  air.  Where  large  quantities  of  seed  are 
produced  the  thrashing  is  done  with  machines  similar  to  regular 
gram  thrashers,  but  when  grown  on  a  small  scale  the  seed  is  removed 
by  beating  with  a  flail. 

After  the  seed  has  been  thrashed,  there  is  still  considerable 
danger  of  its  heating  or  molding  if  left  in  too  great  bulk.  The  usual 
practice  is  to  run  it  through  a  fanning  mill  to  remove  the  dust  and 
small  particles  of  the  heads  or  chaff  that  are  broken  up  in  thrashing. 
In  former  years  the  method  of  cleaning  was  to  place  the  seed  in  a 
tank  of  water  the  heavy  seed  settling  to  the  bottom  of  the  tank  while 
the  chaff  and  lighter  portions  could  be  floated  off.  This  process  is 
no  longer  used  to  any  great  extent,  owing  to  the  improvement  in 
cleaning  machinery,  and  the  danger  of  injuring  the  seed  by  the 
water.  After  the  seed  is  fanned  and  most  of  the  foreign  matter 
removed,  it  should  be  spread  thinly  on  the  floor  or  canvas  and  stirred 
from  time  to  time.  About  the  only  test  that  can  be  applied  in  order 
to  detect  moisture  in  the  seed  is  that  of  feeling  it  with  the  hand,  and 
anyone  experienced  in  the  handling  of  seed  will  soon  become  expert 
at  determining  when  it  is  safe  to  bag  it  ready  for  storage  or  ship- 
ment. 

Production  of  Seed  for  Onion-Set  Growing. — Frequently  the 
seed  for  onion-set  growing  is  produced  from  bulbs  selected  from  the 
Bets  themselves;  in  other  words,  the  bulbs  or  mother  bulbs  are  the 
overgrown  sets.  Owing  to  the  great  quantity  of  seed  employed  in 


94  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

set  growing  it  is  desirable  to  secure  it  cheaply,  and  the  bulbs  selected 
from  the  sets,  being  small,  will  produce  a  larger  quantity  of  seed 
per  bushel  from  mother  bulbs  than  when  grown  in  the  usual  manner. 
The  stock  seed  bulbs  should,  however,  be  well  matured,  small  necked, 
uniform  in  size,  and  selected  according  to  an  ideal  shape.  Onion 
seed  from  undersized  bulbs  is  not  so  desirable,  even  for  set  growing, 
as  that  from  standard  bulbs.  The  length  of  time  that  onion  seed  will 
retain  its  vitality  depends  largely  upon  maturity  and  climatic  condi- 
tions%  Well-matured  seed  will  always  keep  better' than  poorly  ripened 
and  inferior  seed.  Under  ordinary  conditions  onion  seed  loses 
its  vitality  very  rapidly  after  the  second  year,  especially  if  stored  in 
a  damp  climate.  It  will  often  pay  to  ship  the  seed  to  a  dry  climate 
for  storage. 

Production  of  Onion  Sets. — The  term  "set,"  as  applied  to  the 
onion,  indicates  a  small,  undersized  bulb  which,  when  replanted  in 
the  ground,  will  produce  a  large  onion.  This  method  of  producing 
onions  is  perhaps  the  oldest  and  now  the  most  universally  employed 
for  the  growing  of  small  areas  of  onions  in  the  garden  where  an 
early  crop  is  desired.  The  common  method  of  producing  sets  is 
to  plant  a  large  quantity  of  seed  on  a  small  area  of  rather  rich  land 
and  thus  procure  a  great  number  of  bulbs  that  are  undersized,  owing 
to  crowding  and  lack  of  plant  food.  The  greater  number  of  these 
bulbs  do  not  attain  sufficient  size  or  matunty  to  produce  seed  the 
following  season  and  are  really  plants  in  which  the  process  of  growth 
has  been  arrested.  The  climatic  conditions  governing  the  produc- 
tion of  onion  sets  are  practically  the  same  as  those  for  standard 
onions,  although  it  is  not  necessary  to  plant  quite  so  early  in  the 
spring.  As  the  essential  feature  of  growing  onion  sets  is  the 
crowding  together  of  the  plants  in  the  rows,  a  large  quantity  of  seed 
is  required  to  plant  an  acre.  The  quantity  of  seed  required  Varies 
with  the  different  localities.  The  ideal  onion  set  is  almost  globular 
in  shape  and  a  trifle  less  than  half  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  color 
should  be  bright  and  the  surface  free  from  smut  or  spots.  The  term 
"pickler"  is  applied  to  the  onion  just  above  sets  in  size,  or,  in  other 
words,  one-half  to  three-fourths  of  an  inch  in  diameter.  The  term 
"boiler,"  or  "stewer,"  is  applied  to  the  size  next  larger  than  picklers, 
which  are  too  small  for  sale  as  standard  onions,  or  from  three-fourths 
of  an  inch  to  l1/^  inches  in  diameter. 

Varieties  Used  for  Sets. — Seed  of  almost  any  variety  of  onion 
may  be  used  for  the  production  of  sets,  but  a  greater  demand  exists 
for  the  distinctly  yellow,  white,  and  red  colors.  In  the  trade  the  sets 
are  recognized  by  their  color  rather  than  by  actual  varietal  names. 
The  demand  for  the  yellow  and  the  white  sets  is  greater  than  for  the 
red,  and  those  of  the  globular  type  are  generally  preferred. 

Onion  sets  are  sometimes  grown  from  left-over  seed,  in  which 
case  a  large  number  of  varieties  may  be  included.  In  the  principal 
set-growing  districts,  where  the  seed  has  been  locally  grown  for  many 
years,  the  varieties  are  more  or  less  distinct  from  those  of  seedsmen's 
catalogues.— (F.  B.  255,  354,  434;  Ariz.  E.  S.  Cir.  75;  Colo.  E.  S. 
81,  Cir.  5;  N.  Mex.  E.  S.  52,  74;  Oreg.  E.  S.  74;  N.  Y.  E.  S.  206; 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  95 

U.  Id.  E.  S.  22;  N.  Dak.  E.  S.  12;  S.  Dak.  47;  Mich.  E.  S.  6; 
Kaus.  E.  'S.  70.) 

PARSLEY. 

After  soaking  the  seeds  of  parsley  for  a  few  hours  in  warm 
water,  they  may  be  sown  in  the  same  manner  as  celery  seed  and  the 
plants  transplanted  to  the  open  ground.  At  the  North,  parsley  will 
live  over  winter  in  a  cold  frame  or  pit,  and  in  the  South  it  will  thrive 
in  the  open  ground  during  the  winter,  but  it  can  not  withstand  the 
heat  of  summer.  The  plants  should  be  set  in  rows  12  inches  apart 
and  every  4  inches  in  the  row.  The  leaves  of  parsley  are  used  for 
garnishings  around  meats  and  for  flavoring  soups. — (F.  B.  255,  295 ; 
N.  Car.  E.  S.  132;  U.  Id.  E.  S.  10.) 

PARSNIP. 

Sow  the  seeds  of  parsnip  as  early  as  convenient  in  the  spring  in 
drills  18  inches  to  3  feet  apart.  Thin  the  plants  to  stand  3  inches 
apart  in  the  rows.  The  parsnip  requires  a  rich  soil  and  frequent  cul- 
tivation. The  roots  can  be  dug  late  in  the  fall  and  stored  in  cellars  or 
pits,  or  allowed  to  remain  where  grown  and  dug  as  required  for  use. 
It  is  considered  best  to  allow  the  roots  to  become  frozen  in  the 
ground,  as  the  freezing  improves  their  flavor.  As  soon  as  the  roots 
begin  to  grow  the  following  spring  they  will  no  longer  be  fit  for  use. 
All  roots  not  used  during  the  winter  'should  be  dug  and  removed 
from  the  garden,  as  they  will  produce  seed  the  second  season  and  be- 
come of  a  weedy  nature.  When  the  parsnip  has  been  allowed  to  run 
wild  the  root  is  considered  to  be  poisonous. — (F.  B.  255,  295;  Mich. 
E.  S.  20;  U.  Id.  E.  S.  10;  N.  Car.  E.  S.  132.) 

PEAS. 

Garden  peas  require  a  rather  rich  and  friable  soil  with  good 
drainage  in  order  that  the  first  plantings  may  be  made  early  in  the 
spring.  Fertilizers  that  are  high  in  nitrogenous  matter  should  not 
be  applied  to  the  land  immediately  before  planting,  as  they  will  have 
a  tendency  to  produce  too  great  growth  of  vines  at  the  expense  of 
pods.  Land  that  has  been  well  manured  the  previous  year  will  be 
found  satisfactory  without  additional  fertilizer.  A  sandy  loam  is  to 
be  preferred  for  growing  peas,  but  a  good  crop  may  be  Droduced  on 
clay  soils;  however,  the  pods  will  be  a  few  days  later  in  forming. 
Peas  are  easily  grown  and  form  one  of  the  most  palatable  of  garden 
products.  For  the  best  results  peas  should  be  planted  in  the  bottom 
of  a  furrow  6  inches  in  depth  and  the  seeds  covered  with  not  more 
than  2  or  3  inches  of  soil.  If  the  soil  is  heavy  the  covering  should  be 
less  than  2  inckes.  After  the  plants  attain  a  height  of  4  or  5  inches 
the  soil  should  be  worked  in  around  them  until  the  trench  is  filled. 
The  rows  for  peas  should  be  3  feet  apart  for  the  dwarf  sorts  and  4 
feet  apart  for  the  tall  kinds.  A  pint  of  seed  will  plant  about^lOO^feet 
of  single  row.  Many  growers  follow  the  practice  of  planting  in  a 
double  row  with  a  6-inch  space  between.  The  double-row  method  is 
especially  adapted  for  the  varieties  that  require  some  form  of  sup- 
port, as  a  trellis  can  be  placed  between  the  two  rows.  Brush  stuck 
in  the  ground  will  answer  for  a  support  for  the  peas  to  climb  upon. 
Three-foot  poultry  netting  makes  a  desirable  trellis.  If  peas  are 


96  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

planted  for  autumn  use,  the  earliest  varieties  should  be  employed. 
The  first  plantings  should  be  of  such  varieties  as  Alaska  or  Gradus, 
which  make  a  small  but  quick  growth,  and  may  or  may  not  be  pro- 
vided with  supports.  The  dwarf  sorts  like  American  Wonder  come 
on  later,  require  very  little  care,  and  produce  peas  of  fine  quality. 
The  tall-growing  sorts  of  the  Telephone  type  are  desirable  for  still 
later  use  on  account  of  their  large  production  and  excellent  quality. 
Sugar  peas  have  tender  pods  and  if  gathered  very  young  the  pods 
may  be  eaten  in  the  same  manner  as  snap  beans.  In  order  to  main- 
tain a  continuous  supply  of  fresh  peas,  plantings  should  be  made 
every  ten  days  or  two  weeks  during  the  spring  months,  beginning 
as  soon  as  the  ground  can  be  worked.  In  the  extreme  South  peas 
may  be  grown  during  the  entire  winter. — (F.  B.  255;  N.  C.  E.  S. 
132;  Mich.  E.  S.  20,  190;  S.  Dak.  E.  S.  85,  91;  Del.  E.  S.  41;  Colo. 
E.  S.  172.) 

PEPPERS. 

Plant  the  seed  of  peppers  in  a  hotbed,  and  transplant  to  the 
open  ground  as  soon  as  it  is  warm,  or  sow  the  seeds  in  the  garden 
after  all  danger  of  frost  is  past.  When  grown  in  the  garden  the 
plants  should  be  in  rows  3  feet  apart  and  15  to  18  inches  apart  in  thg 
row.  The  plants  require  about  the  same  treatment  as  the  tomato. 
Peppers  are  divided  into  two  classes — the  sweet  varieties,  which  arq 
eaten  as  vegetables,  and  the  pickling  varieties,  which  are  used  foi 
pickles  or  dried  and  powdered,  in  which  form  they  are  much  used  in 
Mexico.  Of  the  sweet  peppers  the  varieties  Sweet  Mountain,  Ruby 
King,  and  Large  Bell  are  good  standard  varieties ;  and  of  the  pickling 
peppers,  the  Cayennes  and  Chilies  are  largely  used.  The  pickling 
varieties  are  all  more  or  less  pungent  and  should  never  be  prepared 
with  bare  hands,  because  the  burning  sensation  is  very  difficult  to 
eliminate.— (F.  B.  255;  B.  P.  I.  6;  P.  Rico  7;  Iowa,E.  S.  47;  N.  C. 
E.  S.  132.) 

PHYSALIS. 

The  physalis  is  also  known  as  the  ground-cherry  or  husk-tomato. 
Sow  the  seed  in  a  hotbed  or  cold  frame  and  transplant  to  the  garden 
after  danger  of  frost  is  past,  or  the  seeds  may  be  sown  in  the  row 
where  the  plants  are  to  remain  and  thinned  to  12  or  18  inches.  No 
particular  care  is  required  except  to  keep  them  free  from  weeds. 
There  are  a  large  number  of  varieties  of  the  physalis,  and  the  fruits 
vary  in  size  and  color.  The  variety  commonly  used  in  gardens  pro- 
duces a  bright-yellow  fruit,  which  is  about  the  size  of  an  ordinary 
cherry.  Toward  fall  the  fruits  will  drop  to  the  ground  and  will  be 
protected  for  some  time  by  their  husks.  If  gathered  and  placed  in 
a  cool  place  the  fruits  will  keep  for  a  long  time.  The  physalis  will 
self-sow  and  may  become  a  weed,  but  it  is  easily  controlled.  A  few  of 
the  volunteer  plants  may  be  lifted  in  the  spring  and  placed  in  rows 
instead  of  making  a  special  sowing  of  seed.  Ten  plants  will  produce 
all  the  husk-tomatoes  desired  by  the  average  family.  The  fruits  are 
excellent  for  making  preserves  and  marmalade. — (F.  B.  255:  S. 
Dak.  E.  S.  68.) 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  97 

POTATO. 

The  term  "potato,"  when  not  modified  by  an  adjective,  suggests 
to  the  mind  of  an  American  the  so-called  potato  (Solatium  tuber- 
osum) .  When  the  name  is  modified  by  the  word  "sweet,"  reference 
is  made  to  a  different  plant,  belonging  to  the  morning-glory  family 
and  known  botanically  as  Ipomoea  batatas.  Attention  is  here  di- 
rected entirely  to  the  Irish  potato. 

Soil  and  Rotation. — The  potato  is  grown  in  every  State  and  Ter- 
ritory, and  naturally  on  a  great  variety  of  soils.  Indeed,  it  has  bean 
grown  on  nearly  every  class  of  soils,  but  this  fact  does  not  minimize 
the  importance  of  selecting  for  the  potato  the  kind  of  soil  best 
adapted  to  it.  The  ideal  soil  for  this  crop  should  be  one  so  light  as  to 
offer  no  great  resistance  to  the  enlargement  of  the  tubers,  so  supplied 
with  organic  matter  as  to  be  rather  moist  without  being  wet,  and  so 
rich  as  to  furnish  an  unfailing  supply  of  fertilizing  ingredients.  A 
rich,  sandy  loam  abundantly  supplied  with  organic  matter  and  nat- 
urally well  drained  is  preferable.  Stiffer  soils  may  be  rendered  suit- 
able for  the  potato  by  drainage  and  by  the  incorporation  of  farm 
manures ;  or  better,  by  plowing  under  green  crops.  Very  heavy  clay 
should  be  avoided  if  the  farm  contains  any  lighter  soil.  Recently 
cleared  ground  suits  the  potato.  Sandy  soils,  if  not  too  subject  to 
drought,  may  be  fitted  for  this  plant  by  the  addition  of  organic  mat- 
ter. It  is  claimed  that  potatoes  grown  on  sandy  land  are  of  better 
quality  than  those  grown  on  stiffer  soil. 

The  potato  requires  a  rich  soil,  but  even  more  important  than 
natural  fertility  is  a  proper  mechanical  condition  of  the  soil.  Artifi- 
cial fertilizers  may  be  substituted  in  part  for  natural  fertility,  but 
they  are  effective  only  when  the  soil  is  in  such  a  condition  as  to  fur- 
nish a  constant  supply  of  water.  The  potato  should  have  the  best 
soil  on  the  farm,  since  it  is  more  exacting  in  this  respect  than  the 
other  staple  crops  and  since  the  product  of  an  acre  is  generally  of 
greater  value.  The  success  of  the  potato  is  largely  dependent  on  the 
crops  preceding  it  in  the  rotation.  ^  If  clover,  cowpeas,  or  other  leg- 
uminous plant  is  grown  just  preceding  potatoes,  its  stubble  furnishes 
organic  matter  and  adds  to  the  store  of  available  nitrogen  in  the  soil. 
Corn  after  sod  frequently  precedes  potatoes,  and  this  is  generally  re- 
garded as  the  best  rotation. 

Rye  is  sometimes  sown  in  late  summer  or  fall  and  plowed  under 
so  as  to  lighten  a  heavy  soil.  Buckwheat  and  other  plants  have  also 
been  used  for  the  same  purpose.  On  light  soils  ana  in  rather  mild 
climates,  crimson  clover  for  green  manuring  may  advantageously 
take  the  place  of  rye  where  early  planting  of  potatoes  is  not  specially 
desirable.  One  year,  or  at  most  two  years,  is  as  long  as  a  field  should 
be  devoted  to  continuous  potato  culture,  although  this  crop  is  some- 
times grown  for  more  than  two  years  in  succession  on  the  same  land. 
This  latter  course  taxes  heavily  the  fertility  of  the  soil  and  necessi- 
tates liberal  manuring ;  moreover  it  involves  considerable  risk  of  in- 
jury from  fungous  diseases,  especially  from  potato  scab.  ^  A  ^  clean 
crop  of  potatoes  can  not,  as  a  rule,  be  grown  on  land  which  in  the 
preceding  year  produced  scabby  tubers.  The  germs  of  the  disease 


98  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

once  in  the  soil  must  be  starved  out  by  growing  on  the  infected  field 
other  crops,  such  as  grass  or  grain,  for  several  years.  In  certain 
localities  in  the  central  part  of  the  United  States  and  elsewhere  the 
following  three  years'  rotation  has  given  highly  satisfactory  results 
on  farms  where  potatoes  are  extensively  grown ;  Fall  wheat,  in  which 
clover  is  seeded  in  the  spring;  second  year,  clover,  plowed  under  in 
fall  or  winter;  and  third  year,  potatoes.  In  some  localities  the  un- 
certainty in  obtaining  a  catch  of  clover  renders  this  rotation  inex- 
pedient. 

Detailed  directions  for  the  preparation  of  one  class  of  soils  would 
not  apply  to  others,  hence  it  can  only  be  said  that  preparation  should 
be  deep  and  thorough,  and  that  unnecessary  compacting  of  the  soil 
should  be  avoided.  Plowing  can  scarcely  be  too  deep,  provided  that 
much  of  the  subsoil  is  not  brought  to  the  surface ;  when  practicable, 
the  depth  should  be  gradually  increased  from  year  to  year.  Though 
the  tubers  are  usually  formed  within  6  inches  of  the  surface  of  the 
ground,  the  roots  feed  deeper.  Practical  experience,  as  well  as  the 
extent  of  the  distribution  of  potato  roots  in  the  soil,  emphasize  the 
importance  of  deep  and  thorough  preparation  of  the  soil  for  this 
crop.  Whether  fall  plowing  is  advisable  depends  on  a  variety  of 
local  considerations.  In  general  in  a  mild  climate  fall  plowing  of 
light  land  exposes  it  to  leaching;  on  the  other  hand,  fall  plowing  ig 
sometimes  necessary,  as,  for  example,  when  a  field  is  badly  infested 
with  injurious  insects. 

Fertilizing. — The  potato  requires  liberal  manuring.  Barnyard 
manure  usually  affords  a  large  increase  in  the  crop,  for  not  only  does 
it  supply  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash,  but  it  improves  the 
mechanical  conditions  of  the  soil.  However,  its  direct  application  to 
the  potato  affords  conditions  favorable  to  potato  diseases,  and  thus 
injures  the  quality  of  the  crop.  For  this  reason  the  best  practice  is 
to  apply  barnyard  manure  to  corn  or  grass  the  year  before  the  po- 
tatoes are  grown.  If  it  is  considered  necessary  to  apply  it  directly 
to  the  potato  crop  it  should  first  be  well  rotted. 

If  for  several  years  before  potatoes  are  planted  the  land  has  been 
properly  manured  with  farm  manures,  or  with  green  crops  plowed 
under,  commercial  fertilizers  can  be  advantageously  used  on  most 
soils.  Generally,  a  complete  fertilizer  should  be  used — i.  e.,  one 
which  contains  nitrogen,  phosphoric  acid,  and  potash.  The  farmer 
is  justified  in  supplying  all  three  of  these  fertilizing  ingredients, 
unless  by  previous  tests  he  has  learned  that  on  his  soil  a  certain  one 
of  them  can  be  safely  omitted.  Of  nitrogenous  fertilizers,  one  of  the 
best  for  potatoes  is  the  quick-acting  nitrate  of  soda.  Of  phosphatic 
fertilizers,  superphosphate  is  preferred.  Among  potash  fertilizers 
the  sulphate  of  potash  has  been  found  to  afford  a  better  quality  of 
potato  than  kainit  and  muriate  of  potash.  Ashes,  are  extensively 
and  effectively  used  to  supply  potash  to  potatoes. 

As  little  farmyard  manure  is  available  in  the  Southern  States 
where  the  early^  crop  of  potatoes  is  chiefly  produced,  this  seldom  en- 
ters as  a  factor  in  the  production  of  the  crop.  Commercial  fertilizers 
of  a  nature  especially  adapted  to  the  potato  crop  form  the  chief  re- 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  99 

liance  of  the  growers.  A  fertilizer  carrying  3  to  4  per  cent  of  nitro- 
gen, 6  to  8  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid,  and  8  to  10  per  cent  of  potash 
is  used  at  the  rate  of  500  to  1,500  pounds  to  the  acre,  depending  upon 
the  crop  which  is  to  follow  the  potato  crop  and  the  liberality  of  the 
grower.  The  fertilizer  may  be  applied  broadcast  if  put  on  at  the  rate 
of  1,000  pounds  or  more  to  the  acre.  When  less  than  1,000  pounds 
to  the  acre  are  used  it  is  almost  universally  applied  along  the  line  of 
the  row,  a  furrow  being  opened  for  the  reception  of  the  fertilizer; 
which  is  scattered  by  hand  or  by  a  distributor  which  can  be  used  to 
fertilize  several  rows  at  a  time.  After  the  fertilizer  has  been  distrib- 
uted, a  cultivator  is  run  along  the  line  of  the  rows  to  incorporate  the 
fertilizer  with  the  soil  in  order  to  prevent  its  coming  in  contact  with 
the  seed  when  planted.  Sometimes  the  furrow  is  refilled  and  re- 
opened prior  to  the  planting  of  the  seed,  so  as  to  incorporate  the  fer- 
tilizer more  completely  with  the  soil.  Still  another  plan  is  to  open 
the  furrow,  distribute  about  one-half  the  quantity  of  fertilizer  to  be 
used  in  the  bottom,  incorporate  it  with  the  soil,  plant  the  potatoes, 
partially  cover  them,  and  scatter  the  remainder  of  the  application  on 
the  seed  bed  above  the  seed. 

Planting. — The  rows  should  be  laid  off  as  close  together  as  prac- 
ticable without  interfering  with  horse  cultivation.  Generally  the 
seed  pieces  should  be  dropped  in  furrows  made  in  the  level  field  and 
not  on  ridges.  However,  low  ridges  are  advantageous  for  an  early 
crop  and  on  poorly  drained  land.  In  covering  the  seed  pieces, 
•whether  they  are  planted  flat  or  on  ridges,  it  is  well  to  leave  a  small, 
sharp  ridge  marking  the  line  of  the  row.  In  some  localities,  however, 
where  excessive  moisture  is  not  feared,  the  opening  furrows  are  only 
partially  filled  after  planting,  leaving  a  depression  along  the  row  to 
be  filled  by  the  use  of  the  smoothing  harrow  or  other  implement. 
In  planting  late  in  the  season  this  course  is  sometimes  advisable. 
The  pieces  may  be  dropped  by  hand  in  the  open  furrow,  or  a  potato 
planter  may  be  used,  dropping  and  covering  the  seed  pieces  at  one 
operation.  'There  are  several  potato  planters  that  do  very  satisfactory 
work,  but  their  cost  restricts  their  use  to  those  who  plant  a  large 
acreage  in  potatoes  o?  to  cases  where  several  farmers  can  use  one  to- 
gether. Their  more  extended  use  is  perhaps  desirable,  since  they 
save  a  considerable  amount  of  labor  and  enable  the  potato  grower  to 
take  full  advantage  of  even  a  brief  period  of  favorable  weather  at 
planting  time  regardless  of  scarcity  of  labor.  In  the  preparation  of 
the  ground  and  in  planting,  the  earth  along  the  line  of  the  row 
should  be  compacted  as  little  as  possible  consistent  with  thorough 
work,  and  hence  the  team  should  be  made  to  walk  between  the  rows 
whenever  possible  instead  of  along  the  drill.  There  is  a  simple  po- 
tato coverer  constructed  somewhat  like  a  triangular  snowplow,  with 
the  wide  end  forward  and  a  portion  of  the  point  or  apex  cut  away 
so  as  to  leave  a  narrow  opening  at  the  rear.  No  special  implement, 
'however,  is  required  for  this  purpose. 

Planting  Machines. — Planting  potatoes  by  hand  on  any  large 
scale  is  out  of  the  question  on  account  of  the  expense.  The  large 
potato  grower  can  of  course  afford  the  most  modern  machinery.  In 


100  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

a  community  of  small  potato  growers  it  is  possible  for  them  to  own 
machinery  jointly,  and  thus  avoid  any  large  expense  to  the  individual 
farmer.  The  two  most  expensive  machines  connected  with  potato 
growing  are  the  planter  and  the  digger.  A  word  of  caution  about 
the  type  of  planter  is  perhaps  desirable.  There  are  some  planters 
which  pick  up  the  seed  potatoes  by  means  of  a  prong  or  fork  which 
breaks  the  skin  of  the  tuber.  This  exposes  the  potato  to  any  germs 
of  potato  diseases  which  may  be  present  in  the  soil.  Furthermore,  it 
carries  any  germ  disease  that  may  be  on  some  of  the  seed  potatoes  to 
others.  There  are  planters  which  pick  up  the  potatoes  in'  such 
a  way  as  not  to  break  the  skin.  This  point  is  especially  important 
in  planting  whole  seed.  In  planting  cut  seed  there  is  still  the  danger 
of  transferring  the  disease  from  one  piece  of  potato  to  another.  What- 
ever planter  may  be  used,  some  one  should  ride  on  the  machine  in 
order  to  see  that  it  works  regularly,  so  as  to  give  as  nearly  a  perfect 
stand  as  possible.  The  improved  planters  of  today  open  the  furrow, 
drop  the  seed,  cover  it,  firm  the  dirt  over  the  seed,  and  mark  the 
next  furrow.  Such  a  planter  is  drawn  by  two  horses.  Experiments 
with  potatoes  planted  in  rows  all  the  way  from  36  to  42  inches  apart 
indicate  that  the  best  distance  depends  upon  the  seasonal  conditions 
and  type  of  soil ;  it  is  a  problem  for  each  grower  to  solve  for  himself. 
The  distance  apart  the  potatoes  should  be  planted  in  the  row  also 
depends  so  much  upon  the  variety,  the  fertility  of  the  soil,  the  availa- 
bility of  water,  etc.,  that  each  farmer  must  determine  this  from  his 
own  experience. 

Time  of  Planting. — Each  community  is  the  best  judge  of  the 
proper  date  for  planting.  Where  potatoes  are  grown  for  the  early 
market  the  aim  is  to  plant  as  early  as  possible,  without  subjecting  the 
young  plants  to  severe  cold.  The  crop  should  be  planted  at  such  a 
date  as  to  bring  the  stage  of  growth  during  which  the  tubers  are 
rapidly  developing  at  a  time 'when  there  is  ordinarily  an  adequate 
supply  of  moisture.  The  month  when  dry  weather  is  most  certain 
varies  with  the  locality,  and  each  potato  grower  should  so  time  his 
planting  as  to  be  least  affected  by  drought.  Where  the  growing 
season  is  long  the  crop  that  is  to  be  stored  over  winter  should  be 
planted  very  late,  so  that  it  may  remain  in  the  ground  until  cool 
weather.  On  the  other  hand,  where  the  season  is  short,  late  varieties 
should  be  planted  in  time  to  ripen  before  frost. 

Depth  of  Planting. — The  roots  of  a  young  potato  plant  grow, 
not  directly  from  the  seed  piece,  but  from  the  underground  joints 
or  nodes  of  the  stem.  From  these  underground  nodes  also  grow  the 
short  stems  which  bear  the  tubers  at  their  extremities.  Hence  the 
seed  pieces  should  be  placed  deep  enough  in  the  soil  to  permit  several 
of  these  joints  to  form  below  the  surface,  so  as  to  afford  room  for  an 
ample  supply  of  roots  and  tuber-bearing  stems  to  grow.  Many  experi- 
ments have  been  made  to  ascertain  the  best  depth  for  planting.  The 
results,  with  some  exceptions,  favor  planting  not  less  than  4  inches 
deep.  The  favorable  effects  of  deep  planting  were  especially  marked 
on  well-prepared,  friable  soil  and  in  dry  seasons.  Very  deep  planting 
is  open  to  objection  because  of  the  increased  labor  of  harvesting  and 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  101 

the  danger  of  a  deficient  stand  when  weather  conditions  are  unfavor- 
able. Very  shallow  planting  reduces  the  yield  and  injures  the  quality 
of  the  crop. 

Growing  Seed  Potatoes  Under  Mulch. — The  Nebraska  Experi- 
ment Station  reported  an  interesting  comparison  of  the  value  for  seed 
purposes  of  potatoes  grown  under  mulch  with  those  grown  with  ordi- 
nary cultivation  under  like  conditions,  which  indicates  that  the 
mulch  method  offers  a  convenient  and  practical  means  of  producing 
good  home-grown  seeds  under  Nebraska  conditions.  The  theory  of 
the  method  and  the  results  obtained  in  the  comparative  tests  are  thus 
stated:  Potatoes  are  a  cool-weather  crop.  It  is  because  of  this  that 
they  succeed  so  well  in  the  far  north.  Moreover,  potatoes  require  for 
their  best  development  fairly  uniform  conditions,  especially  as  re- 
gards soil  moisture  and  soil  temperature.  This  being  the  case,  why 
should  not  potatoes  grown  under  a  litter  :mulch  be  especially  well 
developed  and  therefore  make  strong  seed?  The  soil  beneath  a  mulch 
not  only  has  a  moderately  low  temperature  during  summer,  but  its 
temperature  is  also  exceptionally  uniform,  varying  not  more  than  a 
degree  or  two  between  day_  and  night  and  only  a  few  degrees  from 
day  to  day.  The  soil  moisture  beneath  a  good  mulch  is  also  more 
abundant  and  much  more  nearly  uniiorm  in  amount  than  in  case 
of  bare  ground,  even  though  the  latter  is  given  good  tillage. 

The  value  for  seed  purposes  of  tubers  grown  under  a  litter  mulch, 
has  been  tested  during  two  seasons  at:  the  experiment  station.  In 
1904  a  plat  of  potatoes  was  mulched  with  straw  and  an  adjoining  plat 
was  given  careful  cultivation.  The  eoil  of  the  two  plats  was  prac- 
tically unform  and  the  seed  planted  on  the  two  plats  was  taken  from 
the  same  lot  of  tubers.  Seed  was  saved  from  the  mulched  and  culti- 
vated plats  separately,  kept  under  the  same  conditions  during  winter, 
planted  on  adjoining  plats  in  the  spring  of  1905,  and  given  identical 
cultivation  during  the  summer.  In  1906  the  experiment  was  re- 
peated with  seed  grown  in  mulched  and  in  cultivated  ground  the  year 
before.  The  same  precautions  were  observed  as  in  the  first  test.  Uni- 
form seed  was  used  to  start  with  in  1905.  The  seed  saved  from  the 
mulched  and  from  the  cutlivated  plats  was  taken  as  it  came,  without 
selection,  and  was  kept  over  winter  under  the  same  conditions.  Both 
kinds  of  seed  were  cut  in  the  same  way,  planted  in  the  same  way,  on 
adjoining  plats,  and  treated  alike  as  regards  tillage,  spraying,  etc. 
Under  these  conditions  any  constant  differences  in  yield  between  the 
two  plats  must  be  ascribed  to  the  effect  of  the  methods  of  culture 
employed  the  previous  season.  The  yields  obtained  from  the  mulched 
and  from  the  cultivated  seed  were  as  follows:  Cultivated  seed,  384 
pounds  in  1905 ;  mulched  seed,  563  pounds  in  1905 ;  cultivated  seed, 
123  pounds  in  1906 ;  mulched  seed,  174  pounds  in  1906. 

The  use  of  seed  that  had  been  grown  under  a  mulch  the  preced- 
ing year  increased  the  yield  of  potatoes  47  per  cent  in  1905  and  41 
per  cent  in  1906.  If  further  tests  confirm  the  results  reported  here, 
it  would  seem  that  mulching  might  be  used  for  the  production  of 
high-grade  seed  potatoes  at  home.  Moreover,  mulching  usually  results 
in  increased  yields  if  properly  handled.  Mulching  potatoes  on  a  large 


102  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

scale  is  of  course  impracticable,  but  most  farmers  could  easily  mulch, 
enough  of  their  potato  field  to  produce  the  seed  that  they  would 
require  the  following  year,  and  in  doing  so  they  would  not  necessarily 
increase  the  cost  of  production  per  bushel. 

Time  to  Cut  Seed  Potatoes. — At  least  three  American  experiment 
stations  have  conducted  tests  to  learn  the  effect  of  cutting  seed  potatoes 
several  days  or  weeks  in  advance  of  planting.  The  results  varied 
somewhat  according  to  the  length  of  time  that  the  cut  sets  remained 
unplanted,  but  on  the  whole  indicated  no  marked  difference  in  pro- 
ductiveness between  planting  freshly  cut  pieces  and  those  that  had 
been  cut  for  a  week  or  less.  The  investigations  of  Kraus  and  of 
Wollny  in  Germany  led  to  the  conclusion  that  a  slight  wilting  of  the 
seed  pieces  increased  the  yield  on  moist  soils  and  in  wet  seasons,  but 
reduced  it  on  soils  not  retentive  of  water  and  in  dry  seasons.  On  the 
whole  it  appears  that  the  storing  of  cut  pieces  for  several  days,  which 
sometimes  becomes  necessary,  is  attended  with  no  great  disadvantages. 
Of  course  due  care  should  be  taken  in  such  instances  to  prevent 
heating,  and  it  may  be  well  to  dust  the  cuttings  with  gypsum  (land 
plaster)  to  prevent  excessive  wilting. 

Seed  End  v.  Stem  End. — When  potatoes  are  cut  in  half  through 
their  smaller  diameter  there  is  a  seed  or  bud  end  more  or  less  crowded 
with  eyes  and  a  stem  or  butt  end  on  which  there  are  few  eyes.  Ex- 
periments to  determine  the  relative  values  of  cuttings  from  the  stem 
end  and  from  the  seed  end  of  the^tuber  have  been  numerous.  The 
majority  of  these  showed  that  the  yield  was  greater  when  the  seed  end 
was  used.  The  superior  productiveness  of  the  seed  end  as  compared 
with  the  stem  end  was  maintained,  whether  the  halves  of  the  potatoes, 
the  thirds,  or  smaller  cuttings  were  employed. 

Effect  of  sprouting. — The  growth  of  sprouts  before  planting  is 
made  at  the  expense  of  the  tubers  from  which  they  draw  their  sup- 
port. Hence  if  these  shoots  are  rubbed  off  before  planting  there  is  a 
total  loss  of  the  nutriment  contained  in  them.  Moreover,  numerous 
weak  shoots  grow  from  the  injured  eye.  To  prevent  these  evil  con- 
sequences of  premature  sprouting,  seed  potatoes  are  stored  in  a  dark, 
dry,  cool  place.  In  spite  of  all  precautions  the  tubers  sometimes 
sprout;  but  when  practicable  only  potatoes  that  have  not  sprouted 
should  be  selected  for  planting.  If  the  eyes  appear  dormant  in 
spring,  seed  potatoes  may  be  exposed  to  the  light  and  warmth  for  a 
few  days  before  planting  so  as  to  promote  germination  and  prompt 
growth.  If  long  exposed,  sprouts  will  form  and  careful  cutting  and 
planting  by  hand  become  necessary,  so  as  to  avoid  breaking  of  these 
sprouts. 

Quantity  of  Seed  Potatoes  per  Acre. — A  bushel  of  potatoes  (60 
pounds)  may  contain  240  quarter-pound  tubers.  When  the  seed 
pieces  are  planted  a  foot  apart  in  3-foot  rows  an  acre  requires  14,520 
sets.  When  tubers  averaging  4  ounces  are  employed  an  acre  requires 
at  these  distances  60  bushels  for  planting  whole  potatoes,  30  bushels 
when  halves  are  used,  and  15  bushels  when  quarters  are  planted.  In 
a  number  of  tests  the  amount  of  seed  cut  to  2  eyes,  spaced  1  by  3  feet, 
averaged  13  bushels  per  acre,  the  usual  range  being  from  10  to  14 


FIELD  'AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  103 

bushels.  In  18  experiments  with  many  varieties  the  average  amount 
of  seed  cut  to  single  eyes  was  at  these  distances  6.3  bushels  per  acre, 
the  usual  range  being  from  5  to  7  bushels,  though  the  varieties  with 
large  tubers  bearing  few  eyes  required  considerably  more  seed. 

Size  of  Seed  Pieces, — In  the  size  of  the  seed  piece  planted  the 
practice  of  different  farmers  varies  widely,  some  advocating  a  liberal 
use  of  seed  and  others  claiming  equally  good  results  from  small  cut- 
tings. To  aid  in  settling  this  question  the  State  agricultural  experi- 
ment stations  have  made  numerous  tests  of  seed  pieces  of  different 
sizes.  Taken  separately  these  experiments  show  certain  amount  of 
divergence  in  results,  as  might  naturally  be  expected  of  tests  con- 
ducted under  widely  different  conditions.  However,  the  majority  of 
these  tests,  and  especially  the  figures  expressing  the  average  results  of 
all  available  American  experiments,  may  be  safely  taken  as  indica- 
tions of  what  the  farmer,  under  ordinary  conditions,  will  generally, 
but  not  always  obtain.  The  effect  of  size  of  seed  pieces  on  yield  of 
crop  will  be  treated  here  under  three  distinct  heads:  (1)  On  the 
total  yield;  (2)  on  the  gross  yield  of  salable  potatoes,  and  (3)  on  the 
net  yield  of  salable  potatoes,  i.  e.,  after  deducting  the  amount  of  seed 
planted. 

Effect  on  Total  Yield. — In  making  up  the  averages  below  it  was 
found  practicable  to  use  the  results  of  19  tests  of  single  eyes  v.  2-eye 
pieces,  4  tests  of  2-eye  cuttings  v.  quarters,  17  comparisons  of  quarters 
and  halves,  and  44  tests  of  halves  v.  whole  potatoes.  The  results  of 
other  experiments  less  completely  reported  were  used  for  the  purpose 
of  corro Deration.  The  following  table  shows  the  average  results  of 
these  tests,  including  potatoes  of  all  sizes : 

Bushels.  Per  cent. 
Excess  from  use  of — 

2-eye  pieces  over  1-eye  pieces 26  21 

Quarters  over  2-eye  pieces 15  16 

Halves  over  quarters 24  18 

Whole  tubers  over  halves 31  18 

If  there  are  compared  all  the  total  yields  with  the  total  yield 
produced  by  single  eyes  there  appears  an  increase  of  21  per  cent 
for  2-eye  pieces,  41  per  cent  for  quarters,  67  per  cent  for  halves,  and 
96  per  cent  for  entire  tubers.  The  total  yield  resulting  from  planting 
whole  potatoes  is  practically  double  that  obtained  by  planting  single 
eyes.  Thus  far  there  is  considered  only  the  total  yield,  i.  e.,  large 
and  small  potatoes,  and  it  is  found  that  the  total  yield  increases 
somewhat  uniformly  as  the  size  of  the  seed  piece  is  increased.  The 
farmer  and  gardener,  however,  have  to  consider  other  factors  than  the 
total  yield,  for  a  heavy  crop  may  consist  very  largely  of  tubers  too 
small  for  the  market,  or  the  great  expenditures  for  seed  when  large 
pieces  are  planted  may  more  than  counterbalance  the  increased  yield. 
Before  noting  the  gross  and  net  yields  of  krge  or  salable^  tubers, 
resulting  from  seed  pieces  of  different  sizes,  it  is  well  to  consider  the 
causes  inducing  a  somewhat  regular  increase  in  total  yield  accom- 
panying the  use  of  larger  seed  pieces. 

Several  causes  operate  to  increase  the  yield  when  large 


104  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

pieces  are  planted.  The  larger  the  cutting  the  greater  generally  the 
number  01  eyes  and  the  number  of  stalks.  The  young  shoot,  before 
it  develops  a  strong  system  of  feeding  roots,  is  dependent  for  nutri- 
ment on  the  material  stored  up  in  the  seed  piece;  hence  the  more 
abundant  this  supply  the  more  vigorous  the  growth  of  the  plant  and 
this  increased  luxuriance  is  not  confined  to  the  early  stages  of  growth, 
but  is  marked  throughout  the  growing  season.  Investigation  has 
shown  that  severing  the  connection  between  the  seed  piece  and  the 
growing  vine,  even  after  the  latter  is  thoroughly  rooted,  reduces  the 
yield  of  potatoes.  The  danger  of  partial  or  entire  failure  resulting 
from  an  imperfect  stand  is  much  greater  with  small  cuttings  than 
with  large  seed  pieces.  The  small  pieces  with  extensive  cut  surfaces 
are  liable  to  perish  should  the  season  be  unfavorable,  either  through 
excessive  moisture  or  drought.  The  sprouts  from  small  cuttings 
being  weaker  reach  the  surface  with  difficulty,  or  fail  entirely  on 
soil  not  properly  prepared. 

Effect  on  Gross  Salable  Yield. — By  averaging  the  results  of  the 
experiments  referred  to  above,  it  is  found  that  the  actual  increase 
in  the  potatoes  of  salable  size  due  to  using  larger  seed  pieces  was  as 
follows,  every  increase  in  the  size  of  the  seed  pieces  being  followed 
by  an  increased  gross  salable  yield : 

Bushels.  Percent. 
Excess  from  use  of — > 

2-eye  pieces  over  1-eye  pieces 23  21 

Quarters  over  2-eye  pieces 10  15 

Halves  over  quarters 15 

Whole  tubers  over  halves 14  10 

Effect  on  Net  Salable  Crop. — Before  concluding  that  the  largest 
seed  pieces  are  the  most  profitable  it  becomes  necessary  to  deduct  from 
the  crop  the  amount  of  seed  planted.  It  is  plain  that  the  increased 
amount  of  seed  potatoes  required  when  larger  pieces  are  used  may 
more  than  counterbalance  the  increase  in  yield  obtained.  The  true 
test  of  profit  is  the  market  value  of  the  crop  produced,  less  the  cost 
of  seed  planted.  Should  the  quantity  of  seod  potatoes  used  be  sub- 
tracted from  the  total  yield  of  large  and  small  potatoes  or  from  the 
salable  crop?  If  small  or  unsalable  seed  potatoes  are  planted,  then 
the  former  course  is  the  proper  one,  but  since  large  or  medium  tubers 
(either  entire  or  cut)  are  generally  selected  for  seed  purposes,  it  seems 
best  to  subtract  the  seed  from  the  salable  crop,  thus  ascertaining  the 
net  salable  yield.  The  following  table  shows  the  actual  average  re- 
sults for  the  net  salable  yield ;  that  is,  the  crop  after  deducting  the 
small  potatoes  and  the  seed  used: 

Bushels.  Percent. 
Excess  from  use  of — 

2-eye  pieces  over  1-eye  pieces 15.0  14 

Quarters  over  2-eye  pieces 7.0  15 

Halves  over  quarters ., 5.0  6 

Halves  over  whole  tubers. 8.5  8 

The  amount  of  the  net  salable  crop  rose  with  the  increase  in  the 
size  of  the  cutting  employed,  but  when  the  whole  potato  was  planted 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS 


105 


the  figures  declined  on  account  of  the  large  amount  of  seed  potatoes 
which  had  to  be  deducted.  The  above  figures  indicate  a  very  slight 
advantage  in  planting  halves  rather  than  quarters  when  the  price  of 
seed  and  crop  produced  are  the  same.  As  a  matter  of  fact,  spring 
prices  are  usually  somewhat  higher  than  fall  prices.  A  high  price 
for  seed  potatoes  may  make  it  profitable  to  plant  smaller  pieces  (  as, 
for  example,  quarters)  than  would  be  economical  where  seed  and 
crop  command  the  same  price  per  bushel. 

Amount  of  Seed  Potatoes. — In  the  following  diagram  100  repre- 
sents the  total  yield  from  planting  single  eyes.  The  figures  may  be 
read  as  bushels  per  acre,  if  it  is  constantly  borne  in  mind  that  there 
are  being  considered  soils  of  such  character  as  to  average  100  bushels 
of  large  and  small  potatoes  per  acre  when  planted  with  1-eye  pieces. 
The  first  group  answers  the  question,  "What  size  of  seed  piece  gener- 
ally affords  the  largest  yield  of  large  and  small  potatoes?"  The 
second  group  answers  the  query :  "What  size  of  seed  piece  generally 
gives  the  greatest  yield  exclusive  of  small  potatoes?"  The  third 
group  offers  an  answer  to  a  still  more  important  question :  "What 
size  of  seed  piece  generally  produces  the  largest  yield  after  deducting 
both  the  small  potatoes  and  the  amount  of  seed  planted?" 

Yield  from  planting  different  seed  pieces,  assuming  zoo  as  the  total  yield  from  single  eyes. 
RELATIVE  TOTAL  YIELD. 


i  eye  
2  eyes 

121 

Quarters 

141 

Halves 

167 

Wholes.... 

1% 

RELATIVE  GROSS  SALABLE  YIELD. 


»eye  

105 

123 

Halves.. 

142 

Wholes... 

157 

RELATIVE  NET  SALABLE  YIELD. 


icye  
2  eyes 

95 

109 

Halves 

115 

Whole..... 

107 

106  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

Taking  as  the  correct  measure  of  profit  the  yield  of  salable  po- 
tatoes less  the  amount  of  seed  used,  there  is  seen  by  the  third  section 
of  the  diagram  that  with  seed  and  crop  at  the  same  price  per  bushel 
it  was  more  profitable  in  these  tests  to  plant  halves  than  smaller 
cuttings  and  whole  potatoes.  If  there  be  taken  account  of  the  yield 
of  small  potatoes  the  advantage  of  large  seed  pieces  is  even  greater 
than  the  figures  in  the  last  section  of  the  diagram  would  indicate, 
for  the  yield  of  small  potatoes  is  greater  with  large  than  with  small 
seed  pieces.  Where  large  quantities  of  small  potatoes  can  be  profit- 
ably utilized,  as,  for  example,  as  seed  for  the  second  crop,  the  potato 
planter  may  therefore  use  quite  large  seed  pieces  with  advantage.  On 
the  other  hand,  the  higher  price  of  potatoes  in  spring  rather  than  in 
fall  is  an  argument  in  favor  of  planting  quarters  rather  than  halves 
or  whole  tubers.  A  number  of  investigators  have  noted  that  large 
seed  pieces  (either  large  cuttings  or  entire  potatoes)  afford  an  earlier 
crop  than  very  small  cuttings,  a  matter  of  much  interest  to  growers  of 
early  potatoes.  However,  some  growers  have  reported  that  uncut 
potatoes  germinate  more  slowly  than  large  cuttings.  Most  of  those 
who  raise  potatoes  for  the  early  market  use  large  cuttings  rather  than 
whole  potatoes. 

In  this  connection  it  may  be  said  that  the  seed-end  half  gives 
an  earlier  crop  than  the  other  half.  This  suggests  the  expediency  of 
cutting  a  potato  lengthwise  when  halves  or  quarters  are  to  be  planted, 
thus  securing  on  each  piece  one  or  more  of  the  eyes  which  germinate 
first.  Another  advantage  of  cutting  lengthwise  is  that  it  insures  a 
more  even  distribution  of  the  eyes  on  the  several  pieces.  Of  course 
this  system  is  not  practicable  when  very  small  cuttings  are  to  be  made 
from  long,  slender  potatoes,  since  the  large  amount  of  exposed  surface 
would  render  the  long  pieces  susceptible  to  injury  both  from  moisture 
and  dryness. 

If  it  is  desired  to  cut  the  potato  into  small  pieces  the  operator 
should  begin  at  the  stem  end,  and  the  pieces  should  be  cut  in  a 
compact  shape,  and  of  as  nearly  equal  size  as  is  practicable  without 
leaving  any  piece  entirely  devoid  of  eyes.  There  are  special  imple- 
ments for  cutting  potatoes,  and  their  use  is  reported  as  enabling  a  man 
to  cut  four  or  five  times  as  many  bushels  of  seed  per  day  as  b^  hand. 
The  character  of  the  work  is  said  to  be  satisfactory.  No  definite  rule 
can  be  given  as  to  the  best  size  of  seed  piece,  for  this  depends  some- 
what on  the  distance  between  the  hills  and  on  the  character  of  the 
soil  and  season.  Another  important  factor  in  determining  the  proper 
amount  of  seed  is  variety.  Some  varieties  are  able  to  produce  a 
crop  almost  as  large  from  small  cuttings  as  from  large  pieces. 

Size  of  Seed  Tubers. — A  study  of  more  than  a  hundred  experi- 
ments testing  the  relative  values  of  large,  medium,  and  small  uncut 
tubers  confirms  the  general  law  that  an  increase  in  the  weight  of 
seed  planted  affords  an  increase  in  the  total  crop.  The  yield  of  salable 
potatoes  increases  less  rapidly  than  the  total  yield.  With  whole  pota- 
toes as  seed  the  salable  yield  reached  its  extreme  upward  limit  in  one 
test  when  tubers  weighing  about  half  a  pound  were  planted ;  in_  an- 
other when  those  weighing  4%  ounces  were  employed.  The  limit  of 


FIELD  'AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  107 

profitable  increase  was  reached  with  tubers  weighing  4^  and  3  ounces 
respectively.  The  size  of  seed  tubers  selected  becomes  a  matter  of  im- 
portance when  they  are  to  be  cut,  for  we  have  seen  that  the  heavier 
the  cutting  the  larger  the  total  yield,  and  seed  tubers  for  cutting 
should  be  of  such  size  that  their  halves,  quarters,  or  other  divisions 
shall  not  be  extremely  small. 

Small  Potatoes  for  Planting. — Whether  or  not  to  use  uncut 
small  potatoes  for  seed  is  an  important  question  on  which  farmers 
are  divided.  Some  present  the  plausible  argument  that  the  use  of 
undersized  potatoes  results  in  degeneration.  If  this  claim  is  based 
on  the  results  of  experience  it  should  determine  practice,  but  if  the 
conclusion  is  simply  a  generalization  based  on  the  fact  that  large 
seed  usually  give  best  results  the  reasoning  is  defective,  and  the 
question  remains  open.  The  potato  tuber  is  not  a  seed,  but  an  un- 
derground stem,  and  the  relations  existing  between  seeds  and  their 
progeny  do  not  necessarily  exist  between  a  tuber  and  its  descendants. 
Others  hold  that  potatoes  just  below^  marketable  size,  if  shapely  and 
sufficiently  mature,  may  be  used  without  serious  deterioration,  and 
that  for  economic  reasons  their  use  is  especially  desirable,  because  if 
not  planted  or  used  at  home  they  must  be  lost  or  fed  to  stock,  for 
which  purpose  their  value  is  usually  smaller  than  the  market  price. 

The  result  of  tests  at  a  number  of  experiment  stations  have  uni- 
formly indicated  that  small  tubers  uncut  can  be  used  for  seed  pur- 
poses without  detriment  to  the  succeeding  crop.  It  may  still  be 
urged,  however,  that  the  choice  of  small  seed  year  after  year  will  re- 
sult in  degeneration.  On  this  question  the  information  is  meager, 
but  two  experiments,  extending  over  four  and  eight  years,  respec- 
tively, have  been  reported  in  which  no  degeneration  resulting  from 
the  continued  use  of  small  potatoes  from  the  preceding  crop  was  ap- 
parent. Although  the  evidence  seems  fairly  conclusive  that  small 
uncut  seed  potatoes  may  sometimes  be  used  with  profit,  it  cannot  be 
advised  that  small  seed  tubers  be  selected  year  after  year  from  a  crop 
which  has  been  grown  from  small  potatoes.  Potatoes  of  irregular 
shape  and  injured  tubers  should  be  rejected  as  unfit  for  planting. 

Number  of  Eyes  and  Weight  per  Set. — Many  potato  growers 
cut  tubers  into  pieces  containing  one,  two,  or  more  eyes,  laying 
greater  stress  on  the  number  of  eyes  than  on  the  size  of  the  cutting. 
Extensive  experiments  at  the  Indiana  station  and  elsewhere  prove 
that  of  the  two  factors,  number  of  eyes  and  weight  of  piece,  the  lat- 
ter is  the  more  important.  Of  course  it  is  desirable  that  each  piece, 
whether  large  or  small,  should  contain  at  least  one  eye,  and  it  has 
been  generally  profitable  for  it  to  be  of  such  size  as  to  contain  at  least 
several  eyes;  but  whether  it  has  one  or  many  eyes  it  is  important 
that  the  seed  piece  be  heavy  enough  to  furnish  abundant  nutriment 
to  the  shoots  which  spring  from  it.  A  single  eye  may  give  rise  to 
several  stalks,  for  each  eye  is  a  compound  bud  or  cluster  of  buds.  An 
eye  can  be  bisected,  and  each  half  may  then  g?ow  successfully  if  it 
is  not  a  victim  to  dryness  or  decay,  to  which  its  exposed  condition 
subjects  it. 

In  one  series  of  experiments  it  was  found  that  the  number  of 


108  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

stalks  growing  in  a  hill  was  less  dependent  on  the  number  of  eyes 
than  on  the  size  of  the  seed  piece,  whether  cut  or  entire.  In  general, 
as  the  number  of  eyes  per  piece  increased  each  eye  became  less  pro- 
lific in  sending  up  stalks,  so  that  there  was  less  crowding  of  stalks 
where  large  seed  pieces  with  many  eyes  were  used  than  would  be 
expected  from  the  large  number  of  eyes  planted.  After  numerous  ex- 
periments touching  on  almost  every  aspect  of  this  subject  the  inves- 
tigator advised  that  tubers  be  cut  so  as  to  make  each  piece  of  a  con- 
stant size  or  weight,  whatever  the  number  of  eyes  that  might  fall  to 
its  share. 

Cuttings  per  Hill. — A  custom  not  uncommon  among  those  who 
plant  small  cuttings  is  to  drop  two  pieces  in  each  hill.  They  usually 
get  a  larger  yield  by  so  doing  than  by  planting  single  pieces,  the  in* 
crease  generally,  though  not  always,  being  sufficient  to  pay  for  the 
excess  of  seed.  This  does  not  prove  the  practice  profitable,  for  bet- 
ter results  may  be  secured  by  planting  a  single  piece  weighing  as 
much  as  the  combined  weight  of  the  two  pieces  which  would  have 
been  dropped  in  one  hill.  Thus  the  labor  of  cutting  is  considerably 
reduced  and,  what  is  more  important,  larger  pieces  improve  the 
chances  of  getting  a  good  stand  in  an  unfavorable  season,  because 
they  have  less  exposed  surface  than  two  small  pieces  of  equivalent 
weight,  hence  are  less  liable  to  dry  out  excessively  when  drought  fol- 
lows planting.  They  are  also  better  able  to  resist  rotting  if  wet 
weather  prevails. 

Stalks  per  Hill. — The  most  common  objection  urged  against 
planting  large  seed  pieces  is,  next  to  the  expense,  the  danger  of  hav- 
ing the  hills  so  crowded  with  stalks,  and  consequently  with  tubers, 
that  a  large  proportion  of  the  potatoes  never  develop  to  marketable 
size.  This  objection  is  probably  valid  for  entire  tubers,  and  also  for 
halves  planted  very  close  in  the  row.  The  evidence  available  does 
not  permit  us  to  conclude  that  in  the  case  of  quarters  used  as  seed 
there  results  any  injurious  crowding,  and  it  may  be  questioned 
whether  halves  give  rise  to  this  trouble  when  planted  under  favorable 
conditions  and  at  considerable  distance  apart.  The  number  of  stalks 
that  can  be  advantageously  grown  in  each  hill  varies  greatly  with 
variety,  season,  soil,  and  distance  apart. 

Distance  Between  Plants. — In  deciding  on  the  proper  distance 
at  which  to  plant  potatoes  it  is  necessary  to  take  into  consideration 
the  size  of  the  seed  piece  that  is  to  be  employed.  In  general,  small 
seed  pieces  should  be  planted  close  and  the  distance  allotted  to  each 
hill  should  be  greater  as  the  weight  of  the  piece  is  increased.  Close 
planting  for  small  cuttings  is  best  attained,  not  by  narrowing  the 
row  to  less  than  about  2^2  or  3  feet  (for  if  the  distance  is  much  less 
horse  cultivation  becomes  difficult),  but  by  planting  the  seed  pieces 
close  together  in  the  row.  To  frame  a  general  rule  giving  best  dis- 
tances for  seed  pieces  of  different  sizes  is  plainly  impossible,  for  the 
distance  at  which  the  largest  yields  is  obtained  depends  also  on  the 
variety,  the  season,  the  soil,  and  the  fertilizers.  However,  the  results 
of  some  of  the  investigations  covering  this  matter  afford  help  in  de- 
ciding on  the  proper  distance  under  varying  conditions.  Ifc  has  been 


FIELD  'AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  109 

shown  that  if  very  small  cuttings  are  used,  and  if  the  soil  is  fertile, 
the  distance  can  be  reduced  to  6  or  9  inches  without  sacrificing  the 
yield,  provided  the  season  happens  to  be  favorable,  but  this  is  not 
generally  advisable. 

On  rich  soil  cuttings  of  considerable  size  can  be  advantageously 
planted  as  close  as  12  inches.  Checking  effects  a  saving  of  labor  in 
cultivation,  and  also  in  planting  and  harvesting,  when  these  latter 
operations  are  performed  by  hand ;  hence  expensive  labor  and  the  ab- 
sence of  machines  for  planting  and  harvesting  the  crop  are  condi- 
tions in  favor  of  checking.  For  planting  in  checks  a  variety  can  be 
chosen  which  makes  a  large  growth  of  vines  and  which  forms  many 
tubers  in  each  hill,  thus  more  completely  utilizing  the  space  at  its 
disposal  than  could  a  variety  with  small  vines  and  few  tubers.  In 
checking  there  is  danger  on  rich  soil  that  some  of  the  tubers  may 
grow  to  an  objectionable  size.  Potato  growers  in  attempting  to  ob- 
tain a  phenomenal  yield,  as  in  contests  for  prizes,  almost  universally 
plant  in  drills  rather  than  in  hills,  and  place  the  seed  pieces  from  8 
to  15  inches  apart.  The  advocates  of  planting  in  drills  claim  that  by 
this  method  a  larger  yield  can  be  obtained,  and  experience  seems  to 
confirm  the  correctness  of  this  view.  The  few  experiments  that  have 
been  made  on  this  question  are  not  entirely  conclusive,  though  the 
majority  of  them  favor  drills.  Although  no  fixed  rule  regarding  dis- 
tance of  planting  can  be  given,  the  following  general  considerations 
are  widely  applicable: 

(1)  For  maximum  yield  of  salable  potatoes  plant  in  rows  as 
narrow  as  can  be  conveniently  cultivated. 

(2)  Crowd  small  seed  pieces  close  together  in  the  row,  increas- 
ing the  distance  with  every  increase  in  the  size  of  the  seed  piece  J 
avoid  on  the  one  hand  such  close  planting  as  to  greatly  reduce  the 
average  weight  of  the  tubers,  and  on  the  other  such  wide  spacing  as 
to  leave  any  considerable  portion  of  the  soil  unshaded  by  the  full- 
grown  vines. 

(3)  As  a  rule,  the  richer  the  land  the  less  the  required  distance 
between  sets. 

(4)  Varieties  with  strong  growth  of  vines  or  which  set  many 
tubers  in  a  hill  should  have  greater  distance  between  plants  than  is 
necessary  with  less  vigorous  varieties. 

Cultivation. — Soon  after  planting,  and  again  just  as  the  young 
plants  are  beginning  to  appear  above  ground,  the  field  should  be 
harrowed,  inclining  the  teeth  of  the  harrow  backward.  This  is  a 
cheap  method  of  cultivation,  since  a  wide  space  is  covered.  It  is  also 
effective  in  destroying  small  weeds,  in  leveling  the  ridges  left  in 
planting,  in  preventing  the  formation  of  a  surface  crust,  and  in 
keeping  the  land  covered  with  a  mulch  of  dry  earth,  thus  conserving 
moisture  within  the  soil  below.  Subsequent  cultivation  should  be 
frequent  so  as  to  accomplish  these  same  ends.  Almost  any  pattern  of 
cultivator  may  be  used,  provided  it  is  made  to  do  shallow  work. 
However,  if  the  ground  has  become  packed  the  first  cultivation  may 
be  deeper.  Experience  and  exact  experiments  generally  favor  flat  or 
nearly  flat  cultivation.  Excessive  hilling  during  cultivation  mtensi- 


110  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

fies  the  injurious  effects  of  dry  weather.  It  also  results  in  breaking 
many  of  the  feeding  roots  between  the  rows.  The  frequent  use  of 
the  cultivator  should  be  substituted  as  far  as  possible  for  hoeing. 
If  a  severe  frost  is  apprehended  soon  after  the  plants  come  up,  the 
tops  should  be  covered  by  throwing  a  furrow  to  each  row. 

Mulching. — While  mulching  with  hay,  straw,  leaves,  or  other 
litter  frequently  increases  the  yield  and  is  specially  valuable  in  tid- 
ing over  a  season  of  drought,  it  is  not  generally  practicable  on  farms 
where  potatoes  are  grown  on  a  large  scale.  Its  place  is  in  the  garden 
rather  than  in  the  field.  It  is  a  substitute  for  cultivation,  and  it  is 
generally  cheaper  to  maintain  a  soil  mulch  by  frequent  cultivation 
than  to  apply  litter.  If  a  mulch  is  employed,  it  can  be  applied  over 
the  entire  surface  or  in  the  furrow  above  the  seed  pieces,  or  between 
the  rows.  Mulching  in  the  furrow  is  not  commended  by  the  results 
of  tests  in  Colorado,  Louisiana,  and  Michigan.  In  striving  for  a 
large  yield,  with  little  regard  to  cost,  or  to  insure  against  drought, 
mulching  is  useful. 

Material  intended  to  serve  as  a  mulch  should  first  be  exposed  to 
the  weather,  so  as  to  cause  the  sprouting  of  any  seed  it  may  contain. 
It  is  better  to  apply  a  mulch  after  potato  plants  have  made  some 
growth,  as  an  earlier  application  may  result  in  smothering  some 
plants  and  in  injury  from  late  frosts. 

Harvesting  and  Storing. — The  death  of  the  vines  is  the  signal 
for  digging  the  main  crop.  For  the  early  market  potato  growers  do 
not  wait  for  this,  but  are  governed  by  the  size  of  the  tubers.  As  long 
as  any  portion  of  the  vine  is  green  the  tubers  can  continue  to  grow. 
In  gardens  very  early  potatoes  are  sometimes  obtained  by  carefully 
removing  a  few  of  the  larger  tubers  from  the  growing  plant,  re- 
placing the  soil  and  allowing  the  smaller  potatoes  to  continue  grow- 
ing ("grabbing").  The  large  amount  of  labor  required  prohibits 
"grabbing"  except  when  early  potatoes  are  selling  at  a  price  very 
much  higher  than  can  be  expected  from  the  later  crop. 

In  harvesting  a  large  area  a  high-priced  potato  digger  is  fre- 
quently used;  hand  digging  with  a  four-tined  fork  is  probably  the 
best  method  on  small  areas,  though  many  make  use  of  a  potato  hoe 
or  of  a  plow.  Careful  handling  always  pays,  and  extreme  careful- 
ness is  necessary,  especially  with  the  early  crop,  to  prevent  injury  to 
the  tender  skin  of  the  immature  potatoes.  In  harvesting,  as  well  as 
in  storage,  potatoes  should  be  exposed  to  light  as  little  as  possible. 
In  storing  potatoes  a  low  temperature  is  required.  The  potato  tuber 
is  uninjured  by  a  temperature  of  33°  F.,  and  one  authority  gives  the 
freezing  temperature  of  potatoes  30.2°  F.  Warmth  favors  sprouting, 
which  injures  potatoes  both  for  planting  and  eating. 

Most  of  the  farmers  have  potato  houses  or  cellars  constructed  for 
•storing  their  stock  and  holding  the  unsold  portion  of  the  crop 
through  even  the  coldest  weather  until  they  can  market  it.  Some 
growers,  especially  those  near  town,  depend  on  the  warehouses  of  the 
dealers  alongside  the  railroad  tracks.  The  common  type  of  store- 
house on  the  farm  is  a  cellar  walled  up  with  concrete  or  stonework, 
about  8  or  9  feet  deep,  with  a  low  wooden  roof  above  it,  giving  a  con- 


Photo  by  Verne  Morton,  Groton,  N.  Y. 

THOROUGH   CULTIVATION   OF  THE    GROWING    CROP    IS    AN    ESSENTIAL   OF    SUCCESSFUL   POTATO 

RAISING 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  111 

siderable  space  for  the  storage  of  tools,  barrels,  etc.,  on  the  floor  above 
the  cellar  portion.  These  cellars  are  usually  built  on  the  side  of  a 
hill,  so  that  the  potatoes  are  unloaded  down  through  the  floor  in  the 
fall  and  taken  out  at  a  lower  doorway  during  the  winter. 

Grading. — The  grading  of  early  potatoes  is  quite  as  important 
as  the  grading  of  fruits.  Large  and  small  tubers  should  not  be  mixed 
in  the  same  barrel.  The  pickers  should  be  taught  to  gather  the  large 
and  merchantable  tubers  in  one  basket  and  the  small  or  seed  potatoes 
in  another,  and  these  if  placed  upon  the  market  should  go  in  separate 
receptacles  and  be  clearly  marked  so  as  to  represent  the  grade.  If  a 
mechanical  sorter  is  used  this  work  will  be  more  effectively  accom- 
plished than  if  left  to  the  pickers.  The  type  of  grader  usually  used 
is  similar  to  that  employed  in  some  sections  for  grading  apples  and 
peaches,  although  the  common  type  of  potato  grader  is  a  rotary 
screen  which  separates  the  earth  from  the  tubers  and  allows  the  small 
tubers  to  fall  through  the  large  meshes  of  the  screen  before  reaching 
the  general  outlet  which  carries  away  those  of  merchantable  size. 
The  objection  to  a  mechanical  grader  of  this  type  is  that  it  bruises 
the  immature  tubers  and  renders  them  somewhat  less  attractive  than 
when  not  so  handled  and  probably  also  shortens  the  length  of  time 
they  can  be  safely  held  on  the  market. 

Marketing. — The  perishable  nature  of  the  immature  potato  ren- 
ders it  necessary  to  place  it  upon  the  market  in  such  quantities  only 
as  will  admit  of  immediate  consumption.  Producers  in  regions  where 
the  growing  of  early  potatoes  has  been  extensively  developed  appre- 
ciate this  and  have  provided  for  this  condition  by  organizing  ship- 
pers' associations  through  which  the  crop  is  graded,  often  trade- 
marked,  and  distributed  chiefly  in  carload  lots.  The  officers  of  the 
association  being  in  constant  telegraphic  communication  with  the 
various  markets  are  thus  informed  regarding  the  most  satisfactory 
destination  for  every  consignment  which  may  be  necessary.  It  is  the 
purpose  of  these  associations,  however,  to  conduct  their  business  in 
such  a  way  that  the  product  can  be  sold  f.  o.  b.  shipping  point  in- 
stead of  by  consignment,  and  the  best  organized  associations  are 
usually  able  to  do  this. 

The  great  advantage  of  such  a  system  of  selling  is  that  it  enables 
the  brokers  in  a  small  city  or  town  to  buy  direct  from  the  producer 
instead  of  through  another  city  broker.  It  enables  the  consumer  to 
obtain  fresh  products,  as  they  are  shipped  direct  from  the  point  of 
production  to  the  place  of  consumption.  The  plan  carries  other  ben- 
efits which  are  of  great  moment  to  the  producer.  He  is  enabled  to 
sell  in  carload  lots  at  shipping  point,  thus  saving  to  himself  the  cost 
of  transportation,  which  ranges  from  7  to  15  j>er  cent  of  the  gross  sell- 
ing price.  The  exchange  secures  a  much  wider  distribution  of  the 
crop,  with  the  result  that  overstocked  markets  are  much  less  likely 
than  under  the  consignment  system.  Transportation  companies 
provide  better  service,  and  claims  are  more  promptly  settled  through 
the  exchange  than  in  the  case  of  individuals.  This  plan  enables  the 
producer  to  be  his  own  salesman.  It  transfers  the  distributing  point 
from  the  city  to  the  field,  where  it  should  be.  It  brings  the  market  to 


112  TEE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

the  fields  instead  of  the  product  to  the  market.  The  exchange  be- 
comes the  farmer's  commission  house,  and  it  is  much  easier  to  keep 
informed  regarding  the  transactions  of  a  home  association  than  of  a 
foreign  concern. 

Varieties. — The  following  are  among  the  most  widely  known 
varieties:  Early,  Early  Ohio,  Early  Rose,  Beauty  of  Hebron,  and 
Triumph.  Medium  and  late,  Burbank,  Eural  New  Yorker  No.  2, 
Empire  State,  Mammoth  Pearl,  White  Star,  and  Dakota  Red.  These 
are  standard  varieties,  and  though  not  necessarily  the  best,  they  seem 
to  have  given  general  satisfaction. 

Second-Crop  Potatoes  for  Seed  at  the  South. — Within  recent 
years  there  has  been  a  marked  increase  in  the  use  of  second  crop 
potatoes  for  seed  throughout  the  southern  potato-growing  sections. 
This  crop  is  frequently  grown  on  the  same  land  from  which  the 
first  crop  of  potatoes  was  harvested.  In  most  instances,  however, 
it  follows  beans  or  cucumbers,  as  the  seed  for  this  second  potato  crop 
is  not  usually  planted  until  July  or  August.  The  seed  for  this  crop 
is,  as  a  rule,  saved  from  the  early  crop,  the  small  tubers  being  stored 
in  a  well-ventilated  shed,  where  they  are  protected  from  the  direct 
action  of  the  sun  and  from  storms  until  about  ten  days  or  two  weeks 
before  the  time  of  planting,  when  they  are  spread  thinly  upon  the 
ground  and  lightly  covered  with  straw  or  litter  to  partially  protect 
them  from  the  sun.  Under  these  conditions  the  tubers  quickly, 
"green"  and  all  those  suitable  for  seed  will  develop  sprouts. .  As  soon 
as  the  sprouts  are  visible,  and  before  they  are  large  enough  to  be 
rubbed  off  in  handling,  the  potatoes  are  ready  to  plant.  The 
product  of  this  planting  gives  a  crop  of  partially  matured  tubera 
which  are  held  over  winter  for  spring  planting.  This  practice  gives 
excellent  results  in  many  localities  and  is  found  to  be  more  econom- 
ical than  the  purchase  of  northern-grown  seed.  To  what  extent  it 
is  safe  to  follow  this  practice  without  renewing  the  seed  from  the 
North  by  the  use  of  fully  matured  tubers  has  not  been  determined. 
Those  following  the  method  should  carefully  observe  the  quality  and 
yield  of  the  crop  for  the  purpose  of  determining  whether  or  not  it  ia 
deteriorating  under  this  treatment.  In  general,  it  is  believed  that 
it  will  be  within  the  limits  of  good  practice  to  secure  every  second 
or  third  year  enough  northern-grown  seed  to  supply  seed  for  the 
second  crop ;  in  fact,  some  of  the  most  successful  growers  of  potatoes 
who  use  second-crop  seed  get  enough  northern-grown  seed  each  year 
to  supply  planting  material  for  the  second  crop.  In  this  practice 
it  will  be  economy  to  err  on  the  side  of  safety  and  obtain  fresh  seed 
frequently  from  reliable  northern  sources.  In  a  majority  of 
instances  it  is  found  that  second-crop  home-grown  seed  is  slower  to 
germinate  and  later  in  maturity  than  northern-grown  seed,  and  as 
quick  development  is  an  important  element  in  the  crop  at  the  South, 
growers  are  urged  to  consider  this  point  carefully. 

Held-over  Seed. — The  consensus  of  opinion  is  that  in  southern 
localities  it  is  impracticable  to  keep  early  potatoes  from  harvest  time 
to  the  next  season's  planting  period.  The  conclusions  of  those  who 
have  given  this  problem  careful  study  are  that  the  exposure  of  the 


FIELD  rAND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  113 

tubers  to  the  sun  at  harvest  time  is  the  chief  factor  in  determining 
their  keeping  qualities.  In  other  words,  it  is  possible  to  keep  pota- 
toes in  the  extreme  South  from  season  to  season  provided  the  tubers 
are  not  exposed  to  the  sun  after  being  dug.  They  should  be  imme- 
diately carried  to  a  protected  place  where  there  is  ample  ventilation 
and  where  they  will  receive  only  diffused  light,  such  as  a  cyclone  or 
other  cellar,  or  the  basement  of  a  house,  or  even  where  brush  protec- 
tion will  prevent  the  sun  shining  directly  upon  them.  It  is,  of 
course,  necessary  that  the  tubers  be  well  matured  before  being  dug 
and  that  they  be  the  product  of  disease-free  plants.  Plants  killed  by 
blight  yield  tubers  which  seldom  keep  well  even  under  the  most 
favorable  conditions. 

Methods  of  Securing  Extra-Early  Potatoes. — One  of  the  most 
important  factors  having  an  influence  on  the  profitableness  of  market 
garden  crops  is  that  of  earliness.  A  difference  of  two  or  three  days 
or  a  week  in  placing  a  crop  on  the  market  often  makes  the  difference 
between  profit  and  loss,  and  the  prices  obtained  for  extra-early  crops 
have  stimulated  cultural  experiments  with  every  kind  of  fruit  and 
vegetables.  Some  interesting  results  along  this  line  with  potatoes 
have  recently  been  reported  by  the  Kansas  and  Rhode  Island  sta- 
tions. At  the  Kansas  Station  seed  tubers  of  four  different  varieties 
of  medium-sized  potatoes  were  placed  in  shallow  boxes  with  the  seed 
ends  up  in  February.  They  were  packed  in  sand,  leaving  the  upper 
fourth  of  the  tubers  exposed,  and  the  boxes  were  placed  in  a  room 
with  rather  subdued  light,  having  a  temperature  of  50°  to  60°  F. 
Vigorous  sprouts  soon  pushed  from  the  exposed  eyes.  The  whole 
potatoes  were  planted  in  furrows  in  March  in  the  same  position  they 
occupied  in  trie  boxe&  The  same  varieties  of  potatoes  taken  from 
a  storage  cellar  were  planted  in  parallel  rows.  The  sand-sprouted 
potatoes  took  the  lead  from  the  start  in  vigor  and  strength  of  top 
and  produced  potatoes  the  first  of  June,  a  week  earlier  than  the 
storage-cellar  potatoes.  At  the  final  digging  they  showed  better 
potatoes  and  gave  a  10  per  cent  larger  total  yield.  In  other  experi- 
ment part  of  the  potatoes  was  treated  the  same  as  in  the  first  test, 
except  that  the  sand  was  kept  moistened,  and  the  other  part  was 
placed  in  open  boxes  and  kept  in  a  light  room  having  a  temperature 
of  50°  F.  The  tubers  placed  in  sand  developed  strong  sprouts  and 
nearly  all  rooted.  When  planted  in  the  field  they  outstripped  both 
the  tubers  sprouted  in  open  boxes  and  the  storage-cellar  tubers  in 
vigor  of  growth.  The  tubers  started  in  the  open  boxes  gave  earlier 
yields  than  were  obtained  from  the  storage-cellar  tubers,  but  not  as 
early  as  the  tubers  sprouted  in  moist  sand.  The  tubers  sprouted  in 
moist  sand  produced  table  potatoes  from  7  to  10  days  earlier  than  the 
storage-cellar  seed. 

At  the  Rhode  Island  Station  medium-sized  whole  potatoes 
sprouted  on  racks,  in  a  fairly  warm  and  light  room,  gave  a  27  per 
cent  better  yield  at  the  first  digging  than  potatoes  kept  in  a  cold 
cellar  until  planting  time ;  and  this  was  increased  to  40  per  cent  at 
the  final  digging.  The  percentage  of  large  tubers  was  also  greater  at 
each  digging  with  the  sprouted  tubers.  The  results  of  these  experi- 


114  TEE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

ments  are  suggestive.  The  handling  of  seed  potatoes  in  such  manner 
as  to  secure  strong,  stocky  sprouts  before  the  tubers  are  planted  out 
is  shown  to  be  an  important  factor  in  increasing  both  the  earlinesa 
and  the  total  yield  of  the  crop.  By  planting  only  well-sprouted  seed, 
a  full  stand  is  assured. 

One  of  the  objections  to  this  method  of  growing  potatoes  is  the 
large  amount  of  space  required  for  exposing  the  tubers  to  the  light 
for  sprouting.  This  objection  has  been  overcome  in  part  by  the  use 
of  trays  and  racks.  At  the  Rhode  Island  Station  the  rack  used  held 
9  trays.  Each  tray  was  3%  feet  long  and  1%  feet  wide,  and  would 
hold  about  1  bushel  of  potatoes  when  spread  out  in  a  single  layer 
for  sprouting.  The  bottoms  of  the  trays  were  made  of  pieces  of 
lath  placed  about  1  inch  apart.  Nine  trays  were  placed  in  a  rack 
over  each  other,  leaving  about  9  inches  of  space  between  each  tray. 
This  method  of  arrangement  has  the  advantage  of  securing  a  very 
uniform  distribution  of  light,  heat,  and  air  for  all  the  trays.  It 
greatly  facilitates  the  handling  of  the  potatoes  and  lessens  the  danger 
of  breaking  off  the  sprouts  and  transferring  to  the  field  for  planting. 

Another  method  of  securing  early  potatoes  in  Rhode  Island  on  a 
commercial  scale  is  that  of  sprouting  tubers  in  a  cold  frame  and 
planting  out  as  soon  as  danger  of  frost  is  past.  The  tubers  are  cut 
into  pieces,  not  smaller  than  an  English  walnut,  after  rejecting  the 
two  or  three  eyes  nearest  the  stem  end,  which  have  been  found  to 
start  late.  The  pieces  are  placed  side  by  side  in  the  bed,  skin  side 
upward,  and  covered  about  4  inches  deep  with  fine,  rich  earth. 
Their  growth  can  be  controlled  by  proper  regulation  of  the  cold- 
frame  sash.  At  planting  time  the  tubers,  the  sprouts  of  which 
should  be  just  breaking  the  surface  of  the  soil,  are  carefully  lifted 
with  manure  forks,  separated  by  hand,  and  placed  in  well-fertilized 
rows,  and  entirely  covered  with  soil ;  or,  if  danger  of  frost  is  past,  they 
are  placed  with  the  apex  of  the  sprout  just  at  the  surface  of  the  soil. 
About  216  square  feet  of  cold  frame  is  required  to  sprout  sufficient 
potatoes  to  plant  an  acre  in  30  to  32  inch  rows,  12  inches  apart.  Eight 
men  can  transplant  an  acre  in  a  day. 

On  the  Island  of  Jersey,  where  early  potatoes  are  raised  in  large 
quantities  for  the  London  market,  the  potatoes  destined  for  seed 
are  placed  side  by  side  in  shallow  boxes  and  stored,  as  soon  as  cold 
weather  sets  in,  in  a  light  and  well-sheltered  loft  or  shed,  out  of 
danger  of  frost.  The  position  of  the  boxes  is  changed  from  time 
to  time  so  that  the  sprouts  will  be  of  equal  length  and  strength  at 
the  planting  season.  Medium-sized  tubers  selected  from  the  best 
of  the  crop  and  allowed  to  lie  in  the  field  in  the  fall  until  they  become 
greenish  are  used. 

Potatoes  on  Western  Irrigated  Farms. — With  thorough  cultiva- 
tion, for  potatoes  planted  the  first  of  May,  irrigation  is  seldom  neces- 
sary until  July.  Generally  speaking  irrigation  water  is  cold  and  it 
is  highly  important  not  to  irrigate  too  frequently,  since  the  water 
not  only  causes  the  soil  to  run  together  but  lowers  the  temperature 
to  a  point  that  is  not  favorable  to  the  growth  of  potatoes.  Irrigation 
water  is  applied  only  when  the  condition  of  the  plants  indicates  that 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  115 

they  are  in  need  of  water,  as  by  darkening  of  the.  foliage.  Or  one 
may  dig  down  in  the  hill  and  press  a  handful  of  soil  in  the  hand ;  if 
it  fails  to  retain  its  form,  irrigation  is  needed.  Care  should  be  taken 
not  to  wait  until  the  ground  is  too  dry,  because  one  can  not  cover 
the  whole  field  of  potatoes  in  one  day's  irrigation,  and  some  are 
likely  to  suffer  for  water  before  being  reached.  Experience  shows 
that  if  potatoes  are  grown  as  rapidly  as  possible,  so  as  to  become 
strong  and  well  established  early  in  the  season,  they  withstand  the 
maximum  of  unfavorable  weather  conditions  later  on,  when  the  hot 
dry  winds  becomes  a  menace  to  the  crop. 

When  the  time  for  irrigation  arrives,  a  V-shaped  trench  half- 
way between  the  rows  should  be  opened  in  alternate  middles  with  an 
8  or  10  inch  lister  plow ;  that  is,  a  narrow  plow  with  a  double  mold- 
board  which  throws  the  dirt  each  way.  In  these  furrows  the  irriga- 
tion water  is  run  so  that  the  soil  will  not  become  solidified  by 
flooding,  and  the  necessary  amount  of  water  may  be  properly  dis- 
tributed. For  the  second  irrigation  furrows  are  opened  in  the 
middles  that  were  not  opened  at  the  first  irrigation,  and  this  alterna- 
tion is  continued  for  succeeding  irrigations.  At  the  head  of  each 
field  is  a  feeder  ditch  from  which  the  water  is  admitted  to  these 
irrigation  furrows  between  the  rows.  It  is  essential  that  the  right 
quantity  of  water  be  used,  and  that  it  be  uniformly  distributed. 
Cultivation  should  commence  as  soon  after  irrigation  as  the  soil  will 
permit  so  as  to  insure  rapid  and  uniform  growth  without  check. 
This  will  not  only  result  in  the  production  of  smooth,  uniform  tubers 
of  attractive  appearance,  which  are  always  in  demand  at  high  prices, 
but  will  also  result  in  large,  profitable  yields  and  at  the  same  time 
keep  the  soil  in  good  mechanical  condition  for  future  crops.  Do  not 
irrigate  after  August  10,  so  as  to  give  fifty  or  sixty  days  for  ripening 
in  dry  earth. 

There  is  no  line  of  farming  in  the  irrigated  districts  that  gives 
such  marvelous  profits  as  that  of  scientific  potato  production.  With 
scientific  knowledge  which  can  certainly  be  acquired  by  experiments 
in  supplying  perfectly  balanced  plant  food  and  maintaining  soil  fer- 
tility, the  scientific  principles  of  which  are  similar  to  those  used  by 
every  successful  breeder  in  feeding  and  fitting  prize-winning  stock ; 
and  with  the  proper  proportions  of  plant  foods — phosphates,  nitro- 
gen, and  potash — in  the  soil  as  found  in  many  parts  of  the  West; 
and  by  the  use  of  clover  and  alfalfa,  there  is  no  reason  for  those  who 
contemplate  engaging  in  the  potato  industry  to  fear^the  outcome. 
Too  much  stress  can  not  be  put  upon  the  value  and  importance  of 
live  stock  in  keeping  up  favorable  soil  conditions,  as  no  country  now 
known  has  been  continuously  successful  in  crop  production  without 
the  use  of  manures  from  the  feeding  of  forage  and  grain  crops. 

Varieties. — Years  of  experience  have  demonstrated  that  com- 
paratively few  varieties  of  potatoes  are  really  adapted  to  western  or 
mountain  conditions.  Among  the  early  varieties  none  has  been  so 
universally  successful  as  the  Early  Ohio.  This  potato  is  of  fine 
quality  and  uniform  in  size  and  shape,  though  not  a  heavy  yielder. 
Another  good  potato,  though  not  so  early,  is  the  Rose  Seedling.  For 


116  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

a  medium  to  late  variety,  the  Dalmeny  Challenge,  a  Scotch  variety, 
is  being  used  quite  extensively  on  the  western  slope  of  Colorado.  For 
later  varieties,  the  White  Pearl  and  Rural  New  York  No.  2  are  more 
extensively  used  at  Greeley,  in  the  San  Luis  Valley,  and  in  the  Un- 
compahgre  Valley ;  and  the  Perfect  Peachblow  is  the  favorite  in  the 
upper  Grand  Valley. 

PUMPKIN. 

The  true  pumpkin  is  hardly  to  be  considered  as  a  garden  crop, 
and,  as  a  rule,  should  be  planted  among  the  field  corn.  Plant  where 
the  hills  of  corn  are  missing  and  cultivate  with  the  corn.  However, 
some  of  the  better  sorts  of  pie  pumpkins  should  be  grown  in  the  gar- 
den for  cooking  purposes,  because  they  are  productive  and  much  su- 
perior in  quality  to  the  common  field  pumpkins. — (F.  B.  255;  Mich 
E.S.  20,190.) 

RADISH. 

The  radish  is  quite  hardy  and  may  be  grown  throughout  the 
winter  in  hotbeds  at  the  North,  in  cold  frames  in  the  latitudes  of 
Washington,  and  in  the  open  ground  in  the  South.  For  the  home 
garden  the  seed  should  be  sown  in  the  open  ground  as  soon  as  the  soil 
is  moderately  warm.  Plant  in  drills  12  to  18  inches  apart,  and  as 
goon  as  the  plants  are  up  thin  them  slightly  to  prevent  crowding. 
Radishes  require  to  be  grown  on  a  quick,  rich  soil,  and  some  of  the 
earlier  sorts  can  be  matured  in  two  to  three  weeks  after  planting.  If 
the  radishes  grow  slowly  they  will  have  a  pungent  flavor  and  will 
not  be  fit  for  table  use.  For  a  constant  supply  successive  plantings 
should  be  made  every  two  weeks,  as  the  roots  lose  their  crispness  and 
delicate  flavor  if  allowed  to  remain  long  in  the  open  ground.  As  a 
rule  a  large  percentage  of  radish  seed  will  grow,  and  it  is  often  pos- 
sible by  careful  sowing  to  avoid  the  necessisity  of  thinning,  the  first 
radishes  being  pulled  as  soon  as  they  are  of  sufficient  size  for  table 
use,  thus  making  room  for  those  that  are  a  little  later.  Radishes  will 
not  endure  hot  weather  and  are  suited  to  early  spring  and  late 
autumn  planting.  There  are  a  number  of  varieties  of  winter  rad- 
ishes, the  seed  of  which  may  be  planted  the  latter  part  of  summer 
and  the  roots  pulled  and  stored  for  winter  use.  These  roots  should 
remain  in  the  ground  as  long  as  possible  without  frosting  and  should 
then  be  dug  and  stored  the  same  as  turnips.  This  type  of  radish  will 
not  compare  with  the  earlier  summer  varieties,  which  may  be  easily 
grown  in  a  hotbed  or  cold  frame  during  the  winter.  One  ounce  of 
radish  seed  is  sufficient  to  plant  100  feet  of  row,  and  when  grown  on 
a  large  scale  10  to  12  pounds  of  seed  will  be  required  to  the  acre. — 
(F.  B.  255,  295 ;  U.  Id..  E.  S.  10 ;  Mich.  E.  S.  20 ;  N.  Car.  E.  S.  132.) 
RHUBARB  (PIEPLANT). 

The  soil  for  rhubarb  should  be  deep,  and  there  is  little  danger 
of  having  it  too  rich.  Like  asparagus  the  seedling  plants  of  rhubarb 
can  be  grown  and  transplanted.  Ten  to  twelve  good  hills  are  suffi- 
cient to  produce  all  the  rhubarb  required  by  the  average  family,  and 
these  are  most  easily  established  by  planting  pieces  of  roots  taken 
from  another  bed.  Good  roots  may  be  secured  from  dealers  and 
seedsmen  at  about  $1.50  a  dozen.  The  old  hills  may  be  divided  in 


FIELD  'AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  117 

the  early  spring  or  late  fall  by  digging  away  the  earth  on  one  side 
and  cutting  the  hill  in  two  with  a  sharp  spade,  the  part  removed 
being  used  to  establish  a  new  hill.  The  usual  method  of  planting 
rhubarb  is  to  set  the  plants  in  a  single  row  along  the  garden  fence, 
and  the  hills  should  be  about  4  feet  apart.  If  more  than  one  row 
is  planted  the  hills  should  be  3%  or  4  feet  each  way.  The  thick 
leaf  stems  are  the  part  used,  and  none  should  be  pulled  from  the 
plants  the  first  year  after  setting.  Rhubarb  should  receive  the  same 
treatment  during  winter  as  asparagus,  and  the  plants  should  never  be 
allowed  to  ripen  seed.  The  roots  may  be  brought  into  the  green- 
house, pit,  cold  frame,  or  cellar  during  the  winter  and  forced.  Ehu- 
barb  does  not  thrive  in  warm  climates.  The  use  of  rhubarb  is  prin- 
cipally during  the  early  spring  for  making  pies  and  sauces,  and  the 
stems  may  be  canned  for  winter  use. — (F.  B.  255;  N.  Car.  E.  S.  132; 
U.  Id.  E.  S.  10.) 

RUTA-BAGA   ( SWEDES). 

The  culture  of  the  ruta-baga  is  the  same  as  for  the  turnip,  except 
that  the  former  requires  more  room  and  a  longer  period  for  its 
growth.  The  roots  are  quite  hardy  and  will  withstand  considerable 
frost.  The  ruta-baga  is  used  like  the  turnip,  and  also  for  stock 
feed.  Two  pounds  of  seed  are  required  for  one  acre. — (F.  B.  255; 
Mich.  E.  S.  6.) 

SALSIFY  (VEGETABLE  OYSTER). 

Sow  seeds  of  salsify  during  the  spring  in  the  same  manner  as 
for  parsnips  or  carrots.  At  the  South,  a  sowing  may  be  made  in 
summer  to  produce  roots  for  winter  use.  One  ounce  of  seed  is 
required  to  plant  100  feet  of  row,  and  on  a  large  scale  10  pounds 
to  the  acre.  After  the  plants  are  well,  established  they  should  be 
thinned  sufficiently  to  prevent  their  crowding.  The  cultivation 
should  be  the  same  as  for  parsnips  or  carrots,  and  frequent  use  of  a 
wheel  hoe  will  avoid  the  necessity  for  hand  weeding.  Salsify  may 
be  dug  in  the  autumn  and  stored  or  allowed  to  remain  in  the  ground 
during  the  winter,  as  its  treatment  is  the  same  as  for  parsnips.  Sal- 
sify is  a  biennial,  and  if  the  roots  are  not  dug  before  the  second 
season  they  will  throw  up  stems  and  produce  seed.  It  is  of  a  weedy 
nature  and  care  should  be  taken  that  it  does  not  run  wild  by  seeding 
freely.  Salsify  is  deserving  of  more  general  cultivation,  as  it  is  one 
of  the  more  desirable  of  the  root  crops  for  the  garden.  The  uses  of 
salsify  are  similar  to  those  of  the  parsnip,  and  ^when  boiled  and 
afterwards  coated  with  rolled  crackers  and  fried  in  butter  it  has  & 
decided  oyster  flavor,  from  which  the  name  vegetable  oyster  is 
derived.— (F.  B.  255,  295;  N.  Car.  E.  S.  132;  Idaho  E.  S.  10.) 

SCOLYMUS. 

Scolymus  is  a  vegetable  with  spiny,  thistle-like  leaves,  from 
Spain,  with  roots  much  like  a  small  parsnip  and  keeping  equally 
well  in  winter.— (S.  Dak.  E.  S.  '68.) 

SKIRRET. 

This  is  called  "Zuckerwurzel"  (Sugar  root^  in  Germany.  The 
plump,  fleshy  roots  are  sweet  and  used  boiled  during  winter,  the  same 
as  Salsify.— (S.  Dak.  E.  S.  68.) 


118  TEE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

SORREL. 

This  plant  resembles  the  weed  "sour  dock"  of  the  fields.  The 
leaves  are  large,  tender  and  juicy,  very  broad  and  often  10  inches 
long,  retaining  the  pleasant  acid  flavor  of  the  original  weed.  Much 
prized  in  France  where  it  is  cultivated  as  a  spring  vegetable  and  used 
singly  or  mixed  with  spinach. — (Mich.  E.  S.  20;  U.  Idaho  E.  S.  10.) 

SPINACH. 

Spinach  thrives  in  a  rather  .cool  climate  and  attains  its  best 
development  in  the  Middle  South,  where  it  can  be  grown  in  the  open 
ground  during  the  winter.  Large  areas  are  grown  near  Norfolk, 
Va.,  cuttings  being  made  at  anytime  during  the  winter  when  the 
fields  are  not  frozen  or  covered  with  snow.  When  the  weather  mod- 
erates in  the  early  spring  the  plants  make  a  new  growth,  and  a  large 
crop  of  early  greens  is  available.  North  of  the  latitude  of  Norfolk, 
spinach  can  be  planted  in  the  autumn  and  carried  over  winter  by 
mulching  with  straw  or  leaves.  Sow  the  seeds  in  drills  1  foot  apart 
at  the  rate  of  1  ounce  to  100  feet  of  row  or  10  to  12  pounds  to  the 
acre.  To  produce  good  spinach,  a  rich  loam  which  will  give  the 
plants  a  quick  growth  is  required.  As  ordinarily  grown,  it  occupies 
the  land  during  the  autumn  and  winter  only  and  does  not  interfere 
with  summer  cultivation.  It  is  an  easily  grown  garden  crop,  and 
there  is,  perhaps,  no  other  of  its  kind  that  will  give  as  good  satisfac- 
tion. Three  or  four  ounces  of  seed,  planted  in  the  autumn  after 
a  summer  crop  has  been  harvested  from  the  land,  will  produce  an 
abundance  of  greens  for  the  average  family  during  the  late  autumn 
and  early  spring.  In  gathering  spinach  the  entire  plant  is  removed 
rather  than  merely  cutting  off  the  leaves.  The  larger  plants  are 
selected  first,  and  the  smaller  or  later  ones  are  thus  given  room  to 
develop.  No  thinning  is  required  if  this  plan  of  harvesting  is  prac- 
ticed.—(F.  B.  255;  Mich.  E.  S.  20;  U.  Id.  E.  S.  10;  N.  C.  E.  S.  132.) 

SQUASH. 

There  are  two  types  of  the  squash,  the  bush  varieties,  which  may 
be  planted  in  hills  4  or  5  feet  apart  each  way,  and  the  running  varie- 
ties, which  will  require  from  8  to  16  feet  for  their  development. 
Squashes  may  properly  be  grown  in  the  garden,  as  3  or  4  hills  will 
produce  all  that  are  required  for  family  use.  They  require  practi- 
cally the  same  soil  and  cultural  methods  as  the  muskmelon.  A  num- 
ber of  varieties  are  used  during  the  summer  in  the  same  manner  as 
vegetable  marrow,  but  squashes  are  principally  used  during  the  win- 
ter, in  much  the  same  way  as  pumpkins,  to  which  they  are  superior 
in  many  respects.  Squashes  are  also  used  extensively  for  pie  pur- 
poses. The  varieties  known  as  Hubbard  and  Boston  Marrow  are 
most  commonly  grown.  Squashes,  like  pumpkins,  should  be  han- 
dled carefully  to  avoid  bruising,  and  should  be  stored  in  a  moderately 
warm  but  well  ventilated  room.— (F.  B.  255;  Mich.  E.  S.  190; 
S.  Dak.  E.  S.  42,  68.) 

STACHYS. 

This  vegetable,  known  to  the  botanists  as  Stachys  sieboldi,  has 
been  introduced  into  America  from  Japan  and  has  a  number  of 
different  names,  such  as  Japanese  potato,  Chinese  artichoke,  chorogi, 


FIELD  "AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  119 

etc.,  but  the  name  stachys  seems  to  have  been  adopted  as  the  com- 
mon one  in  this  country.  The  plant  is  a  small  perennial  belonging 
to  the  mint  family  and  produces  just  below  the  ground  a  multitude 
of  small,  white,  crisp  edible  tubers,  varying  from  an  inch  to  two 
and  one-half  inches  in  length,  and  about  one-half  an  inch  in  thick- 
ness and  marked  by  irregular  spiral  rings,  which  give  them  a  cork- 
screw-like appearance. 

Stachys  has  been  tested  at  the  New  York  (Cornell)  and  a  num- 
ber of  the  other  agricultural  experiment  stations,  and  proved  so 
easy  of  cultivation  and  pleasant  in  taste  (the  flavor  resembling  arti- 
chokes) that  the  vegetable  has  made  many  friends  and  is  now  pro- 
curable at  the  markets  in  most  of  our  larger  cities.  The  agreeable 
quality  is  in  considerable  measure  due  to  the  crispness  of  the  tubers, 
and  as  this  disappears  when  they  are  exposed  to  the  air  they  should 
be  stored  in  sand  or  sawdust.  They  are  ready  for  use  when  the 
plant  dies  down  in  the  autumn,  though  they  may  be  easily  carried 
over  the  winter  and  are  prepared  for  the  table  like  potatoes  or  other 
vegetables,  or  may  be  eaten  raw  like  radishes. — (F.  B.  295.) 

SWEET  BASIL. 

The  leaves  are  used  for  flavoring  purposes. 

SWEET  CORN. 

Plant  sweet  corn  as  soon  as  the  soil  is  warm  in  the  spring,  and 
make  successive  plantings  every  two  weeks  until  July,  or  the  same 
result  can  be  attained  to  some  extent  by  a  careful  selection  of  early, 
medium,  and  late  varieties.  Plant  the  seeds  in  drills  3  feet  apart 
and  thin  to  a  single  stalk  every  10  to  14  inches,  or  plant  5  to  6  seeds 
in  hills  3  feet  apart  each  way,  and  thin  out  to  3  to  5  stalks 
in  a  hill.  Cover  the  seeds  about  2  inches  deep.  Cultivate  frequently 
and  keep  down  all  weeds,  removing  suckers  from  around  the  base  of 
the  stalk. 

Sweet  corn  should  be  planted  on  rich  land,  and  the  method  of 
cultivation  is  practically  the  same  as  for  field  corn,  but  should  be 
more  thorough.  There  are  a  number  of  good  early  varieties,  and  for 
a  midsummer  and  late  sort  there  is  none  better  than  Stowell's  Ever- 
green.—(F.  B.  255;  N.  J.  E.  S.  199;  S.  Dak.  E.  S.  91.) 

SWEET  MARJORAM. 

Leaves  and  ends  of  shoots  used  for  seasoning. 

SWEET  POTATO. 

Owing  to  the  tropical  nature  of  the  sweet  potato  it  naturally 
thrives  best  in  the  South  Atlantic  and  Gulf  Coast  States,  but  it  may 
be  grown  for  home  use  as  far  north  as  southern  New  York  and  west- 
ward along  that  latitude  to  the  Eocky  Mountains.  The  climatic 
requirements  for  the  production  of  sweet  potatoes  on  a  commercial 
scale  are  (1)  a  growing  period  of  at  least  four  and  half  months 
without  frost,  (2)  warm  nights  and  abundant  sunshine  during  the 
day,  and  (3)  a  moderate  rainfall  during  the  growing  period.  Where 
irrigation  is  depended  upon  for  the  supply  of  moisture,  the  greatest 
quantity  of  water  should  be  applied  between  the  time  the  plants  are 
set  in  the  field  and  the  time  when  the  vines  practically  cover  the 
ground.  If  too  much  water  is  applied  during  the  latter  part  of  the 


120  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

season  the  result  may  be  an  abundant  growth  of  vine  and  a  small 
yield  of  stringy  potatoes.  For  some  time  before  harvesting  the  crop 
the  water  should  be  withheld  altogether,  in  order  that  the  roots  may 
ripen  properly. 

Soil. — Sweet  potatoes  thrive  on  a  moderately  fertile  sandy  loam 
•which  does  not  contain  an  excess  of  organic  matter.  They  are  fre- 
(juently  grown  upon  almost  pure  sand,  especially  where  the  subsoil 
is  a  yellow  clay.  Soils  containing  considerable  calcium  or  underlain 
with  limestone  are  well  adapted  to  the  growing  of  the  crop.  The 
sweet  potato  is  exceptional  in  that  a  fairly  good  crop  can  be  grown 
upon  soils  that  are  too  poor  for  the  production  of  the  majority  of 
farm  crops.  Sweet  potatoes  yield  a  fair  crop  on  the  "worn-put" 
tobacco  and  cotton  lands  of  the  South,  especially  when  used  in  a 
rotation  including  some  leguminous  crop  for  increasing  the  humus 
in  the  soil.  Like  many  other  crops,  the  sweet  potato  thrives  on 
newly  cleared  land,  but  the  crop  should  not  be  planted  continuously] 
in  the  same  place.  With  the  sweet  potato,  as  with  other  crops,  rota- 
tion is  the  keynote  of  success. 

Good  drainage  is  essential,  the  original  idea  of-  planting  upon 
high  ridges  being  for  the  purpose  of  securing  better  drainage.  The 
surface  soil  should  extend  to  a  depth  of  6  or  8  inches,  and  the  subsoil 
should  be  of  such  a  nature  that  it  will  carry  off  excessive  moisture 
without  leaching  away  the  fertilizers  applied  to  the  land.  Too  great 
a  depth  of  loose  surface  soil  or  an  alluvial  soil  having  no  subsoil  will 
produce  long,  irregular  potatoes  that  are  undesirable  for  marketing. 
Planting  upon  land  having  a  loose,  sandy  surface  soil  underlain  by 
a  well-drained  clay  subsoil  will  tend  to  produce  the  type  of  rather 
thick,  spindle-formed  potato  that  commands  the  highest  price.  The 
depth  of  plowing  is  a  prominent  factor  in  the  preparation  of  land 
for  sweet  potatoes,  and  on  soils  of  too  great  depth  before  the  subsoil 
is  reached  very  shallow  plowing  should  be  practiced,  leaving  the  soil 
firm  beneath,  against  which  the  roots  must  force  their  way.  If  the 
surface  soil  is  of  insufficient  depth,  it  should  be  gradually  increased 
by  plowing  a  little  deeper  each  year  or  by  subsoiling  in  the  furrow 
behind  the  regular  turning  plow. 

Fertilizers. — The  root  portion  of  the  plant  is  the  part  havingi 
the  greatest  value,  though  the  foliage  and  vines  have  some  value  as 
food  for  certain  kinds  of  stock.  It  has  been  found  that  an  excessive 
amount  of  organic  matter  in  the  soil  will  frequently  produce  an 
abundant  growth  of  vines  at  the  expense  of  the  roots.  It  has  also 
been  noted  that  the  potatoes  will  be  small  and  the  yield  unsatisfactory 
on  soils  that  do  not  contain  sufficient  organic  matter  to  produce  a  fair 
growth  of  vine.  The  use  of  stable  manure  as  a  fertilizer  for  sweet 
potatoes  is  recommended  on  lands  that  are  deficient  in  organic  matter. 
Heavy  applications  of  fresh  manure  shortly  before  planting  the  land 
to  sweet  potatoes  will  stimulate  not  only  the  growth  of  weeds  but  also 
of  the  vines  at  the  expense  of  the  roots.  Well-rotted  stable  manure 
may  be  used  at  the  rate  of  10  to  15  carloads  to  the  acre,  spread  broad- 
cast or  beneath  the  ridges  and  harrowed  into  the  soil,  but  it  is  always 
well  to  apply  the  manure  with  the  crop  grown  the  previous  season. 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  121 

By  this  method  the  manure  will  become  thoroughly  incorporated 
with  the  soil  and  become  somewhat  reduced  before  the  sweet  potatoes 
are  planted  upon  the  land.  Stable  manure  will  be  found  most  bene- 
ficial on  worn-out  soils,  but  on  the  more  fertile  soils  its  use  should 
be  retsricted  and  the  method  of  application  carefully  studied. 

The  sweet  potato  is  one  of  the  few  crops  that  thrive  equally  as 
well  (or  better)  upon  commercial  fertilizers  as  upon  stable  manure. 
A  fertilizer  for  use  on  the  majority  of  sweet  potato  lands  should  con- 
tain 3  to  6  per  cent  of  nitrogen,  6  or  7  per  cent  of  phosphoric  acid, 
and  8  to  10  per  cent  of  potash.  Every  grower  should  make  a  study 
of  the  requirements  of  his  soil  and  apply  the  fertilizer  that  will  give 
the  best  results.  Many  growers  purchase  the  ingredients  and  mix 
their  own  special  fertilizers,  or  use  a  standard  fertilizer  as  a  base  and 
increase  the  percentage  of  certain  elements  by  adding  high-grade 
elementary  ingredients.  Some  soils  require  "that  certain  elements 
should  be  in  a  more  available  form  than  others ;  in  the  case  of  nitro- 
gen it  is  often  desirable  to  have  a  portion  of  that  contained  in  the 
fertilizer  quickly  available  and  the  remainder  more  slowly  in  order 
to  feed  the  plants  throughout  the  season.  A  mixture  adapted  to  the 
growing  of  sweet  potatoes  on  most  soils  may  be  made  by  combining 
the  following: 

200  pounds  of  high-grade  sulphate  of  ammonia,  25  per  cent  pure. 

200  pounds  of  dried  blood,  or  300  pounds  of  fish  scrap. 
1,200  pounds  of  acid  phosphate,  11  per  cent  pure. 

400  pounds  of  high-grade  muriate  of  potash,  50  per  cent  pure. 

The  quantity  of  fertilizer  that  may  be  profitably  applied  will  be 
governed  entirely  by  local  conditions.  Many  growers  do  not  depend 
upon  commercial  fertilizers,  but  merely  apply  from  200  to  300 
pounds  to  each  acre  as  a  supplement  to  the  organic  matter  and 
natural  fertility  of  the  soil.  Others  apply  from  300  to  1,000  pounds, 
according  to  the  condition  of  the  soil,  while  a  few  growers  use  a  ton 
to  the  acre.  The  general  rule  is  to  apply  the  fertilizer  in  the  row- 
where  the  crop  is  to  be  grown,  but  where  large  quantities  are  used  it 
should  be  distributed  at  least  ten  days  before  planting  and  thoroughly 
incorporated  with  the  soil.  An  application  of  1,000  pounds  of  high- 
grade  fertilizer  placed  in  the  row  at  planting  time  has  been  known 
to  injure  seriously  or  kill  the  plants.  For  the  best^  results  the  fer- 
tilizer should  be  applied  at  least  ten  days  before  planting,  or  a  portion 
of  the  fertilizer  may  be  applied  a  month  or  more  in  advance  and  the 
remainder  at  the  time  of  preparing  the  land  for  planting.  Hardwood 
ashes  are  desirable  for  use  on  sweet  potato  land  and  may  be  applied 
at  the  rate  of  from  1,200  to  2,000  pounds  to  the  acre.  The  value  of 
wood  ashes  depends  upon  how  much  they  have  become  leached,  but 
hardwood  ashes  should  contain  from  6  to  8  per  cent  of  available  pot- 
ash. Wood  ashes  also  contain  considerable  lime. 

Where  large  quantities  of  any  green  crop  are  plowed  into  the 
eoil  there  is  a  tendency  to  sourness,  and  occasional  applications  of 
from  1  to  2  tons  of  lime  to  the  acre  are  beneficial.  ^  The  presence  of 
an  abundance  of  lime  in  soils  devoted  to  the  growing  of  sweet  pota- 
toes hastens  the  maturity  of  the  crop  and  increases  the  yield.  On 


122  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

poor  soils  the  lime  and  potash  work  together  to  produce  potatoes  of 
uniform  size  and  shape,  but  on  rich  or  alluvial  soils  the  tendency  is 
toward  the  production  of  over-large  and  irregular  roots.  The  lime 
should  be  applied  the  previous  season,  or  at  least  the  autumn  before 
planting  the  land  to  sweet  potatoes. 

Propagation  of  Plants. — The  more  common  varieties  of  the 
sweet  potato  have  for  a  great  many  years  been  propagated  by  cuttings, 
or  sets,  taken  either  from  the  potatoes  themselves  or  from  growing 
vines,  and  as  a  result  the  plants  have  ceased  to  flower  and  produce 
seed.  The  greater  portion  of  the  commercial  crop  is  grown  from  sets, 
or  "draws,"  produced  by  sprouting  medium-sized  potatoes  in  a  warm 
bed  of  soil. 

Where  only  a  small  area  of  sweet  potatoes  is  to  be  grown  for 
home  use,  the  necessary  plants  can  generally  be  secured  from  some 
one  who  makes  a  business  of  growing  them.  If  an  acre  or  more  is  to 
be  planted  it  will  in  most  cases  be  more  economical  to  prepare  a  bed 
and  grow  the  plants.  The  method  of  starting  the  plants  will  depend 
upon  the  locality  and  the  acreage  to  be  planted,  the  essentials  being  a 
bed  of  warm  earth  and  a  covering  to  protect  the  young  plants  during 
the  early  springtime. 

Selection  of  Seed. — The  potatoes  that  are  to  serve  as  seed  from 
which  to  grow  the  plants  for  the  next  season's  crop  should  always  be 
selected  at  the  time  of  digging  and  housing  the  crop.  For  seed  pur- 
poses it  is  the  custom  to  select  the  medium  or  under-sized  potatoes, 
such  as  are  too  small  for  marketing.  Those  potatoes  that  will  pass 
through  a  2-inch  ring  or  can  be  circled  by  the  thumb  and  first  finger 
of  a  man  having  a  hand  of  average  size  are  used  for  seed  purposes. 

The  seed  potatoes  should  be  uniform  in  size  and  of  the  shape 
desired  in  the  following  year's  crop.  The  seed  should  be  free  from 
cuts,  bruises,  decay,  or  disease  of  any  kind.  Throughout  the  hand- 
ling of  the  seed  potatoes  they  should  not  receive  any  treatment  that 
would  break  eggs.  The  seed  should  always  be  handled  and  kept 
separate  from  the  regular  crop.  The  oftener  the  seed  is  handled  the 
greater  the  danger  of  decay,  and  it  should  not  be  sorted  over  until 
everything  is  ready  for  bedding.  The  best  seed  is  grown  from  cut- 
tings taken  from  the  regular  plants  after  they  have  begun  to  form 
vines.  These  cuttings  produce  large  numbers  of  medium  or  small- 
sized  potatoes  that  are  free  from  diseases  and  adapted  for  use  as  seed! 
the  following  year. 

Hotbeds. — Toward  the  northern  part  of  the  area  over  which 
sweet  potatoes  are  grown  it  is  necessary  to  start  the  plants  in  a  hotbed 
in  order  that  the  length  of  season  may  be  sufficient  to  mature  the 
crop.  The  roots  that  are  too  small  for  marketing  are  used  for  seed, 
and  these  are  bedded  close  together  in  the  hotbed  and  covered  with 
about  2  inches  of  sand  or  fine  soil,  such  as  leaf  mold.  The  seed  should 
be  bedded  about  five  or  six  weeks  before  it  will  be  safe  to  set  the 
plants  in  the  open  ground,  which  is  usually  about  May  15  or  May  20. 
Toward  the  last  the  hotbed  should  be  ventilated  very  freely  in  order 
to  harden  off  the  plants. 

Drawing  the  Sets. — As  a  general  rule  sweet  potato  plants  are  set 


FIELD  'AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  "123 

In  the  field  shortly  after  a  rain.  In  order  to  avoid  delay  in  planting, 
the  hands  should  begin  to  get  out  the  sets  as  soon  as  the  rain  ceases 
falling  and  place  them  in  crates  or  baskets  ready  for  transportation  to 
the  field.  The  sets  are  not  all  produced  at  once,  and  only  those  that 
have  formed  good  roots  are  "drawn,"  the  others  being  left  until  later. 
In  drawing  the  sets  the  seed  potato  is  held  down  with  one  hand  while 
the  plants  are  removed  with  the  thumb  and  finger  of  the  other  hand. 
It  often  happens  that  five  or  six  plants  will  cling  together  at  the  base, 
and  these  should  be  separated  in  order  to  avoid  loss  of  time  in  the 
field.  The  roots  should  all  be  kept  in  one  direction,  and  if  the  tops 
are  long  or  irregular  they  may  be  trimmed  off  even  by  means  of  a 
knife.  While  drawing  the  sets  it  is  a  good  plan  to  have  at  hand  a 
large  pail  or  tub  containing  water  to  which  there  has  been  added  a 
quantity  of  clay  and  cow  manure  which  has  been  stirred  until  it  forms 
a  thin  slime.  As  the  plants  are  pulled  from  the  bed  they  are  taken 
in  small  bunches  and  their  roots  dipped  into  this  mixture.  This 
process,  termed  "puddling,"  covers  the  roots  with  a  coating  which  not 
only  prevents  their  becoming  dry  in  handling  but  insures  a  direct 
contact  with  the  soil  when  they  are  planted  in  the  field  or  garden. 
After  removing  the  sets  that  are  ready,  the  bed  should  be  watered  to 
settle  the  soil  where  it  has  become  disturbed  and  then  left  for  the 
younger  plants  to  develop. 

Packing  for  Shipment. — In  preparing  sweet  potato  plants  for 
shipment  or  for  sale,  they  are  "drawn"  from  the  bed  and  tied  in 
bunches  of  100  each  with  soft  string.  Sweet  potato  plants  will  not 
withstand  excessive  moisture  and  should  always  be  packed  while  the 
tops  are  dry.  A  little  damp  moss  or  paper  may  be  placed  in  the  crate 
or  basket  and  the  roots  bedded  in  it,  but  the  tops  should  remain  dry 
and  have  free  ventilation.  If  the  roots  of  sweet  potato  plants  are  care- 
fully puddled  without  the  mixture  coming  in  contact  with  the  tops, 
they  will  keep  in  good  condition  for  a  week  or  ten  days. 

Preparation  of  Land. — The  character  of  soil  devoted  to  sweet 
potato  culture  is  generally  quite  easy  to  prepare.  In  preparing  land 
for  planting  to  sweet  potatoes  the  plowing  and  fitting  are  practically 
the  same  as  for  corn.  It  should  be  borne  in  mind,  however,  that  the 
work  necessary  for  thorough  preparation  will  be  well  repaid  by  the 
increased  ease  in  handling  the  crop  later.  It  is  always  desirable  that 
a  crop  like  sweet  potatoes  be  grown  as  a  part  of  the  regular  farm 
rotation.  In  the  northern  portion  of  the  sweet-potato-growing  area 
the  crop  will  occupy  the  land  the  entire  growing  season,  and  a  three 
or  four  year  rotation  should  be  practiced.  Where  the  climate  will 
permit,  a  crop  of  early  snap  beans,  peas,  or  cabbage  may  precede  the 
sweet  potatoes,  but  in  any  case  the  land  should  not  be  planted  to  sweet 
potatoes  oftener  than  once  every  three  years.  A  good  rotation  is  to 
devote  the  land  to  corn  one  year,  sowing  crimson  clover  in  the  alleys 
between  the  rows  at  the  time  the  corn  is  given  the  last  cultivation. 
During  the  following  spring  the  crimson  clover  should  be  turned 
under  and  sweet  potatoes  planted;  then  in  the  autumn,  after  the 
potatoes  are  harvested,  the  land  may  be  plowed^fitted  and  sown  to  rye 
or  winter  oats  with  plenty  of  grass  seed.  In  this  way  a  crop  of  grain 


124  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

may  be  obtained  during  the  time  that  the  grass  is  becoming  estab- 
lished. Allow  the  land  to  remain  in  grass  one  or  two  years  and  then 
repeat  the  rotation.  Where  corn  is  followed  by  sweet  potatoes  in  the 
rotation,  stable  manure  should  be  applied  while  fitting  the  land  for 
the  corn,  and  commercial  fertilizers  should  be  applied  with  the  sweet 
potato  crop. 

The  usual  depth  of  plowing  in  preparing  land  for  corn  will 
prove  satisfactory  for  sweet  potatoes.  The  fact  that  sweet  potatoes  are 
not  planted  in  the  field  until  quite  late  in  the  spring  makes  it  possible 
for  the  grower  to  select  a  time  when  conditions  are  favorable  for  the 
preparation  of  the  land.  Plowing  may  be  deferred  until  the  soil  has 
become  sufficiently  dry  to  break  up  fine  and  mellow.  It  is  important 
that  the  land  should  be  harrowed  within  a  few  hours  after  plowing ; 
further  fitting  may  be  deferred  until  later,  and  if  the  soil  is  inclined 
to  be  lumpy  the  work  of  pulverizing  may  best  be  done  shortly  after  a 
shower  and  while  the  lumps  are  mellow.  When  the  primary  work  of 
preparation  is  finished,  the  soil  should  be  mellow  to  a  depth  of  6  or  7 
inches  and  the  surface  smooth  and  even.  Subsequent  handling  of 
the  soil  preparatory  to  planting  will  depend  upon  whether  ridge  or 
level  culture  is  to  be  followed. 

Preparation  for  Planting. — After  plowing  and  fitting  the  land  it 
is  generally  allowed  to  lie  several  days  before  being  put  in  shape  for 
planting.  If  level  culture  is  to  be  practiced,  the  only  thing  necessary 
will  be  to  run  the  harrow  over  the  soil  once  and  then  mark  in  both 
directions  at  the  desired  distances  for  planting.  The  marking  is 
generally  done  with  either  a  one-horse  plow,  a  flat-soled  marker,  or  a 
disk  marker.  The  disk  marker  is  well  adapted  to  this  work,  as  it 
throws  up  a  slight  ridge  which  furnishes  fresh  earth  in  which  to 
plant.  Some  growers  who  practice  level  culture  mark  the  ground 
with  a  small  one-horse  plow  and  throw  up  a  slight  ridge  upon  which 
to  plant;  behind  the  plow  a  roller  is  used  to  compress  this  ridge  to  a 
low,  flat  elevation.  Where  the  more  universal  ridge  method  of  plant- 
ing is  employed  the  soil  is  thrown  up  by  means  of  a  turning  plow  or 
a  disk  machine.  The  ridges  should  be  made  at  least  one  week  before 
planting,  in  order  that  the  soil  may  become  settled  and  compact.  The 
majority  of  sweet-potato  growers  make  the  ridges  whenever  the  land 
is  in  good  condition  to  work  and  then  either  roll  or  drag  the  tops  just 
ahead  of  the  planters. 

Setting  the  Plants.— The  success  of  the  crop  depends  largely 
upon  the  way  in  which  the  plants  start  after  being  removed  from  the 
bed  and  set  in  the  field  or  garden.  Practical  growers  always^plan  to 
set  the  plants  during  a  "season"  or  period  when  the  conditions  are 
suitable  to  a  quick  start  into  growth,  either  just  before  a  rain  or  as 
soon  afterward  as  the  soil  can  be  worked.  The  method  of  setting  will 
depend  entirely  upon  local  conditions  and  the  acreage  to  be  grown,  the 
essential  features,  however,  being  to  get  the  roots  in  contact  with  moist 
earth  and  the  soil  firmly  pressed  about  the  plants.  The  use  of  water 
around  the  roots  of  the  plants  is  desirable  under  most  circumstances, 
as  it  not  only  moistens  the  soil  but  assists  in  settling  it  about  the  roots. 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  125 

A  large  quantity  of  water  is  not  necessary,  one-half  pint  to  each 
plant  being  generally  considered  sufficient. 

Where  level  culture  is  practiced,  the  plants  are  set  from  24  to  30 
inches  apart  in  each  direction.  On  the  eastern  shore  of  Virginia  the 
greater  portion  of  the  crop  is  planted  24  inches  apart  each  way,  re- 
quiring about  11,000  plants  to  an  acre.  By  planting  30  inches  apart 
each  way,  only  about  7,000  plants  are  required  to  set  one  acre.  Where 
the  crop  is  grown  on  ridges  it  is  customary  to  have  the  ridges  from 
36  to  42  inches  apart  from  center  to  center  and  to  place  the  plants 
14  to  18  inches  apart  in  the  row.  By  this  method  an  acre  will  require 
from  8,000  to  12,500  plants.  An  acre  of  good  sweet  potato  land  will 
readily  support  9,000  to  11,000  plants,  and  the  number  most  com- 
monly planted  by  the  several  methods  will  fall  within  these  figures. 

Cultivation. — The  methods  of  handling  a  crop  of  sweet  potatoes 
do  not  differ  materially  from  those  employed  with  ordinary  farm  and 
garden  crops.  Within  a  few  days  after  planting,  a  sweep  or  one-horse 
plow  should  be  run  in  the  alleys  to  break  out  the  strip  of  earth  left  in 
ridging.  The  loose  earth  in  the  alleys  should  be  worked  toward  the 
rows  until  a  broad,  flat  ridge  is  formed  upon  which  a  small-tooth 
cultivator  can  be  run  quite  close  to  the  plants.  After  each  rain  or 
irrigation  the  soil  should  receive  a  shallow  cultivation,  and  during  dry 
weather  frequent  cultivations  are  necessary  in  order  to  retain  mois- 
ture. About  two  hand  hoeings  are  generally  necessary  in  order  to 
keep  the  rows  free  from  weeds  and  the  soil  loose  around  the  plants. 
As  hand  labor  is  expensive,  it  should  be  the  aim  to  perform  the 
greater  part  of  the  work  by  means  of  horse  tools.  Where  sweet 
potatoes  are  planted  in  check  rows  and  worked  in  both  directions  the 
hand  work  required  will  be  reduced  to  a  minimum,  but  a  certain 
amount  of  hoeing  is  always  necessary.  When  the  vines  begin  to 
interfere  with  further  cultivation  the  crop  may  be  "laid  by,"  i.  e., 
given  a  final  working  in  which  the  soil  is  drawn  well  up  over  the 
ridges  and  the  vines  then  allowed  to  take  full  possession  of  the  land. 
To  do  this  it  is  often  necessary  to  turn  the  vines  first  to  one  side  of  the 
row  and  then  to  the  other  by  means  of  a  stick  or  a  wooden  rake.  After 
"laying  by,"  very  little  attention  is  required  until  time  for  harvesting 
the  crop. 

Harvesting. — The  harvesting  and  marketing  of  sweet  potatoes 
direct  from  the  field  begins  about  the  middle  of  August  and  continues 
•until  the  crop  is  all  disposed  of  or  placed  in  storage  for  winter  mar- 
keting. During  the  early  part  of  the  harvesting  season  the  yield  is 
light,  but  as  a  rule  the  prices  paid  are  good.  The  supply  for  home  use 
and  those  potatoes  that  are  to  be  kept  in  storage  should  not  be  dug 
until  just  before  frost.  In  the  localities  where  frosts  do  not  occur  until 
quite  late  in  the  season  the  sweet  potatoes  ripen  and  the  vines  show  a 
slight  tinge  of  yellow  when  ready  for  handling. 

Effect  of  Frost. — The  foliage  of  the  sweet  potato  is  very  tender 
and  is  easily  injured  by  frost.  A  light  frosting  of  the  leaves  will  do 
no  harm,  but  should  the  vines  become  frozen  ^before  digging  they 
should  be  cut  away  to  prevent  the  frozen  sap  passing  down  to  the  roots 
and  injuring  them.  Where  there  is  a  heavy  yield  of  potatoes  the 


126  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

soil  is  frequently  cracked  or  the  ends  of  the  potatoes  protrude  above 
ground  and  are  liable  to  injury  from  severe  frost. 

If  on  account  of  rainy  weather  or  for  any  other  cause  the  pota- 
toes can  not  be  dug  before  frost  or  immediately  afterwards,  the  vines 
should  be  cut  away  and  the  potatoes  removed  at  the  first  opportunity. 
If  cold  weather  continues  it  may  be  necessary  to  draw  a  little  extra 
soil  over  the  hills  to  protect  the  potatoes,  or  the  vines  may  be  piled  in 
a  ridge  over  the  row.  A  very  slight  frosting  of  the  potatoes  will  cause 
them  to  decay  within  a  short  time  after  being  placed  in  storage. 

It  is  desirable  that  the  soil  should  be  comparatively  dry  at  the 
time  of  harvesting  sweet  potatoes,  and  bright,  drying  weather  is 
essential  to  the  proper  handling  of  the  crop.  Sweet  potatoes  differ 
from  Irish  potatoes  in  that  they  are  not  so  easily  injured  by  sunlight. 
However,  they  should  not  be  exposed  for  any  length  of  time  if  the 
sunshine  is  very  warm.  During  the  handling  in  the  field  it  should 
be  the  purpose  to  remove  all  soil  and  surface  moisture  from  the 
potatoes.  Sweet  potatoes  should  not  lie  exposed  upon  the  surface  of 
the  ground  during  the  night. 

Grading  and  Packing. — In  sorting  sweet  potatoes  preparatory  to 
packing,  about  four  grades  are  recognized,  as  fancy,  primes,  seconds 
and  culls.  Those  packed  as  fancy  include  only  the  most  select,  both 
in  size  and  shape.  The  primes  include  all  those  adapted  to  general 
first-class  trade,  while  the  seconds  include  the  smaller  and  more 
irregular  stock  which  goes  to  a  lower  priced  trade.  The  culls  are  not 
marketed  unless  good  stock  is  exceedingly  scarce,  and  as  a  rule  are 
used  for  feeding  to  hogs.  Sweet  potatoes  are  usually  shipped  in  bar- 
rels holding  eleven  pecks  each.  Some  markets  require  that  the  barrels 
be  faced  and  headed,  while  for  others  the  tops  are  slightly  rounded 
and  covered  with  burlap.  Small  lots  of  extra-fancy  sweet  potatoes  are 
sometimes  shipped  in  one-bushel  crates  having  raised  tops;  also  in 
patent  folding  crates.  Throughout  the  process  of  handling  care  must 
be  exercised  to  see  that  the  sweet  potatoes  do  not  become  bruised,  for 
upon  this  their  shipping  and  keeping  qualities  greatly  depend. 

Storage. — Unlike  most  perishable  products,  the  sweet  potato 
requires  warmth  and  a  dry  atmosphere  while  in  storage.  The  method 
of  storing  will  depend  both  upon  the  locality  and  the  quantity  of 
potatoes  to  be  cared  for.  The  temperature  and  conditions  of  a  rather 
cool  living  room  are  admirably  adapted  for  keeping  sweet  potatoes 
intended  for  home  use  in  the  North,  while  in  the  South  they  may  be 
placed  in  pits  or  stored  in  outdoor  cellars.  The  home  supply  may  be 
placed  in  crates  and  stored  in  a  loft  over  the  kitchen  part  of  the 
dwelling.  Sweet  potatoes  should  not  be  stored  in  bags  or  in  barrels 
without  ventilation. 

The  seed  stock  for  planting  the  following  year  should  be  selected 
and  stored  separately  in  a  small  bin.  As  the  potatoes  are  separated 
into  their  respective  grades  they  are  put  into  baskets  and  carried  to 
the  bins.  ^Some  growers  prefer  to  do  the  grading  in  the  field,  but 
this  necessitates  the  employment  of  a  larger  percentage  of  expert  labor 
and  delays  the  work  of  getting  the  potatoes  hauled  to  the  storehouse. 
Women  and  children  can  pick  up  the  potatoes  in  the  field,  and  two 


FIELD  'AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  127 

or  three  experienced  men  can  do  the  sorting  and  grading  at  the  house 
in  a  much  shorter  time  and  in  a  more  satisfactory  manner. 

Before  starting  to  fill  a  bin,  2  or  3  inches  of  dry  pine  needles, 
straw,  or  chaff  should  be  placed  upon  the  floor.  Beginning  at  the 
back  of  the  bin  the  potatoes  are  piled  to  a  depth  of  30  or  40  inches 
until  the  entire  floor  space  is  covered  and  a  number  of  slats  are 
required  to  be  placed  across  the  doorway  opening.  A  few  grain  bags 
filled  with  straw  should  be  placed  upon  the  potatoes  at  intervals  from 
front  to  back  of  the  bin,  and  upon  these  planks  on  which  the  men 
may  walk  while  carrying  in  the  next  layer  of  potatoes  may  be  laid. 
In  this  way  a  bin  may  be  filled  to  a  depth  of  8  or  9  feet  by  about 
three  layers.  By  dumping  them  in  layers  the  potatoes  have  an  oppor- 
tunity to  become  thoroughly  dry  before  a  new  layer  is  placed  over 
them. 

Temperature  and  Ventilation  of  Storage  Houses. — Two  or  three 
days  before  beginning  to  bring  in  the  potatoes,  the  storage  house 
should  be  thoroughly  cleaned  and  the  heating  appliance  put  in  work- 
ing order  and  started,  in  order  to  have  the  house  both  warm  and  dry 
when  the  crop  comes  in.  Throughout  the  time  of  storing  and  for 
about  ten  days  after  the  potatoes  are  all  in  the  bins  a  temperature  of 
85°  or  90°  F.  should  be  maintained  in  the  house,  with  plenty  of 
ventilation.  This  constitutes  what  is  known  as  the  sweating  or  curing 
process,  and  the  keeping  qualities  of  the  potatoes  depend  upon  the 
thoroughness  with  which  this  part  of  the  work  is  done.  Wood- 
burning  stoves  are  frequently  employed  for  heating  sweet  potato 
storage  houses,  but  a  hot-water  boiler  with  coils  of  pipes  along  the 
walls  of  the  building  is  very  satisfactory. 

After  the  crop  is  all  in  and  thoroughly  cured,  the  temperature  of 
the  storage  house  should  be  gradually  lowered  and  may  vary  between 
65°  and  65°  F.,  but  considerable  ventilation  should  be  main- 
tained. Sweet  potatoes  should  be  handled  very  carefully  and  as  few 
times  as  possible,  the  essentials  to  good  keeping  being  a  reasonable 
degree  of  warmth,  a  dry  atmosphere,  and  careful  handling.  Great 
care  should  be  taken  with  the  seed  for  the  next  year's  planting  to  see 
that  it  is  carefully  handled  and  properly  stored.  While  a  temperature 
of  80°  or  85°  F.  is  required  to  properly  start  the  seed  into  growth 
in  the  spring,  a  higher  temperature  during  a  long  period  of  time  in 
storage  is  liable  to  injure  or  even  kill  the  buds^  Potatoes  intended  for 
seed  should  not  be  stored  in  too  great  quantities,  and  where  but  a 
email  supply  is  needed  they  can  often  be  kept  buried  in  dry  sand  after 
having  first  been  thoroughly  cured.  The  sand  used  for  this  purpose 
should  be  baked  to  insure  the  driving  off  of  moisture,  and  may  be 
placed  around  the  potatoes  while  slightly  warm.  In  controlling  the 
ventilation  of  the  storage  house  during  the  winter  months,  outside 
air  should  be  admitted  only  when  quite  dry  and  when  its  temperature 
is  lower  than  that  of  the  air  in  the  storage  house.  If  warm,  moist  air 
is  admitted  considerable  moisture  will  be  deposited  upon  the  potatoes, 
thus  injuring  their  keeping  qualities. 

Loss  from  Shrinkage  in  Storage.— Under  proper  storage  condi- 
tions sweet  potatoes  will  shrink  from  6  to  10  per  cent,  but  the  loss  in 


128  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

weight  will  be  greater  if  the  temperature  of  the  house  is  carried  too 
high.  If  the  potatoes  are  not  mature  when  dug  from  the  field  the  loss 
from  shrinkage  may  be  as  much  as  15  per  cent,  and  immature  stock 
should  be  marketed  early  in  the  winter. 

Marketing  During  Winter  Months. — For  marketing  from  out- 
side pits  it  is  desirable  to  have  the  quantity  stored  in  one  pit  small 
enough  to  permit  of  all  being  removed  at  one  time.  The  potatoes 
may  be  removed  from  outdoor  cellars  as  desired.  In  marketing  from 
heated  storage  houses  the  potatoes  should  not  be  disturbed  until  they 
are  barreled  or  crated,  and  then  they  should  be  placed  directly  upon 
the  market  and  sold  without  delay.  When  shipping  during  cold 
weather  the  barrels  should  at  least  be  lined  with  paper,  and  a  covering 
of  heavy  brown  paper  over  the  outside  of  the  barrels  will  form  a  safe- 
guard. If  the  potatoes  are  shipped  in  carload  lots  during  the  winter 
the  cars  should  be  either  of  the  regular  refrigerator  type  or  felt  lined. 

Varieties. — Of  the  large  number  of  varieties  of  the  sweet  potato 
there  are  not  more  than  ten  that  are  now  of  great  commercial  impor- 
tance in  the  United  States.  For  the  markets  that  require  a  dry, 
mealy-fleshed  potato  those  varieties  belonging  to  the  Jersey  group  are 
suitable.  For  the  southern  trade  and  where  a  moist-fleshed  potato  is 
desired  those  commonly  designated  as  yams  are  in  demand.  Among 
the  Jerseys  that  are  extensively  grown  are  the  Big-Stem  Jersey,  the 
Yellow  Jersey  and  the  Eed  Jersey.  The  principal  varieties  of  the 
yam  group  are  the  Southern  Queen,  the  Pumpkin  Yam,  the  Georgia, 
the  Florida,  and  the  Red  Bermuda.  Of  the  varieties  mentioned  there 
are  a  large  number  of  special  strains,  known  under  many  local  names. 
In  the  selection  of  varieties  for  home  use  one  must  be  governed 
largely  by  locality.  As  a  rule  those  of  the  Jersey  group  will  thrive 
farther  north  than  those  of  the  so-called  yam  types.  For  market 
purposes  the  particular  variety  or  strain  grown  in  the  vicinity  should 
first  be  selected,  and  afterward  other  varieties  may  be  experimented 
with  in  a  small  way.—  (F.  B.  255,  295,  324 ;  Tuskegee  E.  S.  2, 10, 17 : 
Ariz.  E.  S.  86;  N.  Hex.  E.  S.  70;  S.  Car.  E.  S.  5,  136;  S.  Dak. 
E.  S.  91.) 

SWISS  CHARD. 

The  part  eaten  is  not  the  root,  but  the  midrib  of  the  leaf  which  ig 
prepared  much  the  same  as  asparagus.  The  flavor  is  distinct  from 
that  of  the  ordinary  beet  root.  Give  the  same  culture  as  required  for 
beets.  The  soil  should  be  richer.  In  the  fall  cover  with  straw.  This 
will  aid  an  early  growth  and  help  blanch  the  stems.  This  is  a  very 
valuable  plant  and  should  be  cultivated  more  extensively. 

THYME. 

The  leaves  are  used  for  seasoning,  and  a  tea  is  also  made  there- 
from for  nervous  headache. 

TOMATOES. 

Because  of  the  tropical  origin  of  the  tomato  it  requires  a  long 
season  for  its  growth  and  development,  and  on  this  account  it  is 
necessary  in  the  Northern  States,  in  order  to  secure  paying  crops,  to 
resort  to  methods  which  lengthen  the  growing  season.  It  is  much 
easier  for  the  gardener  to  accomplish  this  while  the  plant  is  small 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  129 

than  when  it  is  large,  and  because  early  fruits  are  as  a  rule  more  val- 
uable than  late  ones  it  is  of  advantage  to  the  gardener  to  secure  his 
crop  as  early  in  the  season  as  practicable.  The  season  is,  therefore, 
lengthened  at  the  beginning  rather  than  at  the  end.  This  is  accom- 
plished by  sowing  seeds  in  hotbeds  or  greenhouses  several  weeks  in 
advance  of  the  time  when  they  could  be  safely  planted  in  the  open. 

The  Tomato  as  a  Field  Crop  at  the  North. — East  of  the  Missis- 
sippi Eiver  and  north  of  the  latitude  of  Washington,  D.  C.,  the  tomato 
is  handled  as  an  annual,  the  seeds  being  sown  in  hotbeds  about  the 
middle  of  March.  The  young  plants,  as  soon  as  they  have  developed 
their  first  true  leaves,  are  transplanted  to  stand  about  2  inches  apart 
each  way  and  are  allowed  to  develop  in  these  quarters  until  they  have 
attained  a  height  of  from  4  to  6  inches  and  the  leaves  begin  to  crowd 
considerably.  They  are  then  transplanted  to  pots,  3  or  4  inches  in 
diameter. 

Training  Plants  to  Stakes. — For  earliest  returns  it  is  desirable  to 
train  forced  plants  to  a  single  stem  by  tying  them  to  a  stake  4  or  5 
feet  in  height.  These  stakes  should  be  driven  firmly  into  the  ground 
beside  the  plants  and  the  plants  carefully  tied  to  them  to  prevent 
whipping  and  to  keep  the  fruits  off  the  ground.  All  side  shoota 
should  be  kept  pinched  out  and  only  the  central  leading  stem  allowed 
to  develop  to  bring  larger  results.  If  the  plants  are  to  be  trained  in 
this  way  they  can  be  set  from  18  inches  to  2  feet  apart  in  the  row, 
and  aTbout  3^  to  4  feet  between  the  rows. 

Training  Plants  on  Frames. — Another  plan  sometimes  followed 
in  the  training  of  tomatoes  is  to  place  a  flaring  frame,  about  18  inches 
square  at  the  base  and  24  inches  square  at  the  top  over  the  plants 
before  they  begin  to  spread.  The  shoots  as  they  become  "heavy  with 
fruit  fall  over  against  the  sides  of  the  rack  and  are  prevented  f*rom 
coming  in  contact  with  the  earth.  For  a  kitchen  garden  where  but  few 
plants  are  grown  this  is  a  very  satisfactory  plan.  The  plants  can  be 
set  somewhat  closer  than  is  the  case  where  no  supports  are  provided. 
For  commercial  plantations,  however,  the  cost  of  the  frames  is  pro- 
hibitive. The  common  commercial  practice  is  to  place  the  plants 
about  4  feet  apart  each  way  in  check  rows  so  as  to  allow  them  to  be 
cultivated  in  both  directions.  Under  intensive  cultivation  in  a  small 
garden,  however,  the  first  method,  that  of  tying  the  .vines  to  stakes, 
will  be  found  very  satisfactory. 

Where  tomatoes  are  grown  on  a  large  scale  and  where  the  prod- 
uct brings  only  a  small  price  per  bushel,  expensive  methods  of  hand- 
ling and  training  can  not  be  profitably  followed.  The  common 
practice  in  growing  tomatoes  for  the  general  market  and  for  canning 
purposes  in  localities  north  of  New  York  City  is  to  sow  the  seed  very 
thinly  in  a  hotbed  about  March  15  and  allow  the  plants  to  grow 
slowly  without  transplanting  them  until  they  can  be  put  in  the  field 
about  June  1.  The  plants,  even  with  the  most  careful  attention,  when 
grown  under  these  conditions  will  become  long  and  thin  stemmed, 
with  a  small  tuft  of  leaves  at  the  top. 

Setting  the  Plants. — Plants  more  than  a  foot  high  which  have 
been  grown  under  these  conditions  should  be  treated  somewhat  as 


130  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

follows :  Instead  of  attempting  to  set  the  plant  deeply  and  maintain 
it  in  an  upright  position,  remove  all  except  three  or  four  of  the  top- 
most leaves  about  the  growing  point.  Dig  a  shallow  trench  along  the 
row — a  trench  3  or  4  inches  deep — slightly  sloping  from  a  deep  point 
at  one  end  to  the  surface  of  the  ground  at  the  other.  Place  the  bare 
stem  of  the  tomato  and  the  root  in  this  trench,  with  the  root  in  the 
deepest  portion,  cover  the  stem  throughout  its  length  with  fresh  soil, 
and  pack  this  firmly.  Under  these  conditions  the  plant  will  take  root 
throughout  the  length  of  the  buried  stem,  and  in  a  short  time  the 
added  root  system  which  is  thus  given  the  plant  will  force  it  into 
vigorous  growth.  Plants  of  this  character  which  are  to  be  grown  on 
an  extensive  scale  are  never  trained.  They  are  allowed  to  grow  at 
•will,  and  the  fruits  are  gathered  as  they  ripen  without  special  atten- 
tion to  keep  them  off  the  ground  or  otherwise  to  care  for  them. 

Length  of  Season. — The  season  of  fruit  production  is  longer  in 
the  higher  than  in  the  lower  latitudes.  This  is  a  rather  interesting 
and  unexpected  condition.  Normally  one  would  expect  to  find  that 
the  tomato  would  begin  maturing  its  fruit  earlier  and  would  continue 
bearing  longer  in  the  latitude  of  the  city  of  Washington  than  it  would 
in  the  latitude  of  Boston ;  but  this  is  not  the  case.  Tomatoes  in  the 
latitude  of  Washington  and  south  of  this  point  come  into  bearing, 
quickly  produce  a  heavy  flush  of  fruit,  and  then  refuse  to  do  more, 
and  in  order  to  have  a  continuous  supply  throughout  the  season  it  is 
necessary  for  market  gardeners  and  truckers  to  plant  seeds  in  suc- 
cession so  as  to  keep  up  a  continuous  supply. 

Fertilizers. — Since  the  tomato  is  grown  exclusively  for  its  fruit, 
those  fertilizers  which  induce  a  large  growth  of  plant  and  foliage  are 
(not  desirable  in  the  production  of  this  crop.  Soils  vary  greatly  in 
regard  to  the  quantity  of  available  plant  food  they  contain.  The  use 
of  a  fertilizer  is  determined  largely  by  the  character,  mechanical  con- 
dition, and  composition  of  the  soil.  If  a  soil  is  deficient  in  all  the 
essential  elements  of  plant  food — nitrogen,  potash,  and  phosphoric 
acid — the  application  of  any  one  or  even  two  of  them  will  not 
materially  influence  the  yield  of  the  crop.  On  the  other  hand,  on 
soils  deficient  only  in  potash  or  phosphoric  acid,  or  both,  little  would 
be  gained  by  adding  nitrogen,  which  is  already  in  excess,  to  the  other 
element  or  elements  to  be  applied.  Economy  of  operation,  as  well  as 
the  general  effect  upon  the  soil,  must  also  be  considered.  This  may 
be  influenced  by  the  character  of  the  season,  but  should  be  based  on 
'the  increased  yield  and  increased  net  receipts  of  the  crop. 

As  a  general  rule,  readily  soluble,  "quick-acting"  fertilizers 
which  produce  an  early  growth  and  early  ripening  of  the  crop  are 
[most  desirable.  Heavy  dressings  of  stable  manure  tend  to  produce 
too  much  vine,  and  are  seldom  or  never  employed.  If  stable  manure 
is  used  it  is  at  a  moderate  rate,  usually  not  more  than  one  or  two 
shovelfuls  to  a  plant.  This,  if  well  decomposed  and  thoroughly  incor- 
porated with  the  soil,  is  very  stimulating  to  the  young  plant  and 
consequently  very  beneficial.  Any  fertilizer  used  should  be  applied, 
in  part  at  least,  at  the  time  the  plants  are  transplanted  to  the  field. 

Cultivation. — As  soon  as  the  young  seedling  plants  from  the  hot- 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  131 

bed  or  greenhouse  are  transferred  to  the  field  they  should  be  given 
clean  cultivation  with  implements  which  stir  the  surface  of  the  soil 
but  do  not  produce  ridges  or  furrows.  When  the  plants  are  set  in 
check  rows  4  feet  apart  each  way  it  is  possible  in  field  culture  to  keep 
the  plantation  almost  free  from  weeds  by  the  use  of  horse  hoes.  If, 
however,  the  plants  are  set  so  that  cultivation  can  be  carried  on  only 
in  one  direction,  hand  hoeing  will  be  necessary  to  keep  down  weeds 
between  the  plants  in  the  row.  Where  land  is  not  expensive,  and 
where  labor  costs  heavily,  the  cost  of  producing  a  crop  of  tomatoes 
can  be  decidedly  lessened  by  planting  in  check  rows  and  carrying  on 
the  cultivation  by  horsepower. 

The  grower  should  bear  in  mind,  however,  that  the  object  of 
cultivation  is  not  merely  to  kill  weeds.  The  destruction  of  weeds  is 
an  important  factor  and  in  itself  sufficient  to  justify  clean  culture, 
but  the  preservation  of  a  soil  mulch  for  the  purpose  of  husbanding 
the  moisture  of  the  soil  during  periods  of  drought  is  of  even  greater 
value.  With  care  in  the  choice  of  implements  both  results  can  b£ 
attained  with  the  same  expenditure  of  labor. 

Harvesting  and  Marketing. — The  fruits  should  be  gathered  two 
or  three  times  a  week  if  the  tomato  is  grown  as  a  truck  crop.  When 
used  for  canning  purposes  the  harvesting  periods  need  not  be  quite 
so  close,  and  when  the  fruits  are  to  be  shipped  some  distance  they 
should  be  gathered  as  soon  as  partially  colored,  instead  of  allowing 
them  to  become  colored  on  the  vine.  The  fruit  of  the  tomato  is  vel- 
vet green  up  to  the  time  the  ripening  process  begins,  and  at  this 
stage,  if  the  products  are  to  be  shipped  long  distances,  the  fruits 
should  be  harvested.  For  home  markets,  however,  the  fruits  should 
be  allowed  to  ripen  upon  the  plant. 

In  harvesting,  none  except  sound  fruits  of  a  similar  stage  of 
maturity  should  be  harvested  and  packed  in  any  one  receptacle. 
Leaky  fruits  and  deformed  fruits  should  be  rejected.  In  packing 
tomatoes  for  the  market,  those  that  are  symmetrical  in  form  and  uni- 
form in  size  and  of  a  like  degree  of  ripeness  should  be  selected  for 
filling  any  one  receptacle. 

Varieties  for  the  North. — There  are  a  large  number  of  sorts  of 
tomatoes,  each  one  possessing  some  points  of  merit  or  difference  which 
distinguish  it  from  all  others.  These  differences  enable  the  intelli- 
gent cultivator  to  select  sorts  for  special  purposes,  as  well  as  for  special 
soils  and  climates.  The  varying  demands  of  the  markets  and  the 
different  soil  and  climatic  conditions  presented  in  the  various  sec* 
tions  of  the  United  States  where  the  tomato  is  grown  can  only  be 
satisfied  by  a  variety  list  as  variable  as  are  the  conditions. 

Early  ripening  sorts  are  frequently  irregular  in  shape,  have  com- 
paratively thin  walls,  large  seed  cavities,  and  numerous  seeds.  The 
fruit  is  apt  to  color  and  ripen  unevenly,  remaining  green  around  the 
stem,  or  to  contain  a  hard  green  core.  Later-ripening  sorts,  while  not 
all  superior  to  the  others,  have  as  a  rule  thicker  and  firmer  walls, 
smaller  seed  cavities,  and  few  seeds. 

The  most  highly  developed  varieties  now  make  few  seeds  and 
ripen  evenly.  These  characteristics  of  the  fruits  are  important  fac- 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

tors  in  determining  their  fitness  for  special  purposes.  Medium-sized, 
smooth,  spherical  fruits,  which  ripen  evenly  and  have  small  seed 
cavities  and  thick  walls  are  especially  suited  to  long-distance  ship- 
ment. These  qualities  should  enter  into  every  sort  selected  to  the 
greatest  possible  degree  consistent  with  earliness,  lateness,  heavy 
yield,  or  any  other  special  quality  which  gives  the  variety  a  marked 
commercial  advantage.  The  following  list  is  made  up  of  varieties 
possessing  some  markedly  distinct  character,  such  as  earliness,  great 
size,  purple,  red,  or  yellow  color,  dwarf  habit,  etc. : 

Early  Ripening  Varieties. — Sparks'  Earliana,  Atlantic  Prize, 
Early  Freedom. 

Large-Fruited  Varieties. — Ponderosa,  Beefsteak. 

Purple-Fruited  Varieties. — Beauty,  Acme,  Imperial. 

Red-Fruited  Varieties. — Favorite  (late),  Honor  Bright,  Match- 
less, Stone,  Royal  Red,  New  Jersey. 

Yellow-Fruited  Varieties. — Golden  Queen,  Lemon  Blush. 

Dwarf  or  Tree  Types. — Dwarf  Champion,  Station  Upright  Tree, 
Aristocrat. 

Potato-Leaf  Types. — Livingston's  Potato-Leaf,  Mikado,  Turner's 
Hybrid. 

The  Tomato  as  a  Field  Crop  at  the  South. — Commercial  tomato 
growing  in  the  Southern  States  is  almost  exclusively  confined  to  the 
production  of  tomatoes  at  a  season  when  they  can  not  be  grown  at 
the  North,  except  in  greenhouses.  On  this  account  the  commercial 
production  of  this  crop  is  restricted  to  areas  where  there  is  very  little, 
if  any,  freezing  during  the  winter  months. 

Time  of  Planting. — At  the  extreme  southern  limit  of  the  com- 
mercial cultivation  of  this  crop  in  Florida  the  plants  are  grown  so 
as  to  be  ready  for  setting  in  the  open  about  December  1.  The  date 
of  seed  sowing  advances  as  the  cultivation  of  the  crop  progresses 
northward,  so  that  in  northern  Florida  the  seeds  are  sown  early  in 
January  and  the  young  plants  placed  in  the  field  in  March.  Where 
frost  conditions  do  not  form  barriers  against  the  production  of  seed- 
ling plants  in  the  open,  the  seed  beds  for  the  young  plants  are  pre- 
pared in  some  sheltered  situation  where  partial  shade  can  be  given 
and  where  the  seed  bed  can  be  frequently  watered.  The  young  plants, 
as  soon  as  they  have  attained  the  proper  size — that  is,  from  6  to  10 
inches  in  height — are  transferred  to  the  field  in  practically  the  same 
manner  as  are  the  hotbed-grown  plants  produced  for  general  field 
culture  at  the  North,  and  except  for  a  specially  early  crop  they  are 
not  transplanted  or  potted.  The  young  seedlings  in  the  cold  frame 
will  require  careful  attention  in  the  way  of  watering  and  ventilation ; 
otherwise  many  plants  will  be  lost  by  damping  off  or  from  sun- 
scorching  during  bright  days  unless  the  sash  are  lifted  or  entirely 
removed. 

Yield. — The  yield  of  fruit  in  the  South,  under  the  conditions 
mentioned,  is  much  less  than  it  is  in  regions  having  the  long  grow- 
ing periods  characteristic  of  higher  latitudes.  Yields  vary  from 
75  to  250  bushels  to  the  acre,  but  the  high  price  obtained  "for  the 
fruits  which  are  thus  produced  at  a  season  when  the  sole  competition 


FIELD  'AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  133 

comes  from  the  products  of  northern  greenhouses  renders  the  crop, 
when  well  handled,  very  remunerative. 

Soil. — The  soil  which  is  preferred  for  the  production  of  this 
crop  is  one  which  contains  a  comparatively  high  percentage  of  sand. 
In  this  region  sandy  loam  or  a  sandy  soil  is  preferred  to  bottom  land 
for  the  cultivation  of  tomatoes.  An  area  with  a  gentle  slope  to  the 
south  is  considered  more  desirable  than  that  with  other  exposure. 
If  a  wind-break  can  be  secured  along  the  north  and  west  sides  of  the 
area  very  early  crops  can  frequently  be  preserved  through  a  wind- 
storm when  the  temperature,  while  not  low  enough  to  freeze  the 
plants,  will,  when  accompanied  by  a  high  wind,  chill  and  destroy 
them. 

Varieties  for  the  South. — In  the  South,  where  the  tomato  is 
handled  as  a  short-season  crop,  certain  varieties  are  found  to  give 
best  results  in  certain  districts.  Along  the  Atlantic  seaboard  the 
growers  of  tomatoes  use  such  sorts  as  Beauty,  Stone,  Perfection, 
Aristocrat,  and  Paragon.  In  the  truck  regions  of  eastern  Texas  the 
Dwarf  Champion  is  perhaps  more  universally  grown  than  any  other 
variety,  but  in  this  same  region  the  Success  is  found  to  be  a  more 
profitable  late-season  or  fall  crop  than  the  Champion. 

Forcing  Tomatoes. — In  the  forcing  of  plants,  which  means  the 
growing  of  a  plant  out  of  its  natural  season  and  in  an  artificial 
environment,  the  first  requirement  for  success  is  a  properly  con- 
structed protective  structure  or  greenhouse.  Because  of  the  tropical 
nature  of  the  tomato  more  than  ordinary  provisions  must  be  made 
in  order  to  meet  the  demands  of  this  crop.  In  the  forcing  of  most 
vegetables  a  lower  temperature  and  benches  without  bottom  heat  are 
satisfactory,  but  with  the  tomato  the  house  must  be  piped  so  as  to 
maintain  a  minimum  temperature  of  65  degrees  F.,  and  the  benches 
should  be  so  constructed  as  to  admit  of  applying  bottom  heat. 

Type  of  Greenhouse. — The  type  of  house  that  is  generally; 
employed  for  the  forcing  of  tomatoes  is  the  even-span  or  a  three- 
fourths  span  house.  If  the  even-span  house  is  used  it  is  preferable 
to  have  the  ridge  running  north  and  south ;  if  the  three-fourths  span 
(house  is  employed  it  is  best  to  have  the  long  side  sloping  toward  the 
south.  The  tomato  when  grown  in  the  forcing  house,  because  of  its 
long  fruiting  season  and  the  fact  that  its  clusters  of  fruit  are  borne 
one  above  the  other,  requires  a  considerable  amount  of  head  room. 
Low  houses  are  therefore  not  desirable  in  the  Droduction  of  this  crop. 
The  side  walls  of  a  house  designed  for  the  forcing  of  tomatoes  should 
be  at  least  4  feet  in  height,  and  the  distance  from  the  top  of  the 
middle  bench  to  the  ridge  of  the  house  should  be  at  least  10  feet. 

Soil. — The  soil  for  the  production  of  this  crop  should  be  well 
decomposed  loam,  made,  if  possible,  from  sods  from  an  old  pasture, 
the  soil  of  which  is  a  rather  light  clay  loam  or  a  heavy  sandy  loam. 
With  this  should  be  incorporated  about  one-fourth  its  bulk  of  well- 
rotted  stable  manure,  preferably  cow  manure.  By  composting  these 
two  materials  for  from  four  to  six  months  before  they  are  ^  required 
for  use  a  very  satisfactory  soil  for  the  forcing  of  tomatoes  will  result. 
Care  should  be  exercised  to  allow  the  soil  that  is  used  for  forcing 


134  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

tomatoes  to  be  frozen  each  year.  The  depth  of  soil  required  for  the 
successful  growth  of  tomatoes  is  considerably  more  than  that 
employed  for  roses,  although  the  temperature  and  other  require- 
ments are  very  similar  to  those  demanded  by  the  rose.  While  4  or  5 
inches  of  soil  are  adequate  to  produce  a  crop  of  roses,  the  soil  for 
tomatoes  should  be  at  least  6  or  8  inches  in  depth ;  8  inches  is  prefer- 
able. It  is  not  well  to  allow  the  soil  to  remain  in  the  greenhouse 
longer  than  a  single  season.  It  becomes  somewhat  exhausted  and  is 
likely  to  become  infested  with  injurious  forms  of  life,  particularly 
nematpdes,  which  cause  root-knots  upon  the  tomato  plants,  thus 
defeating  the  work  of  the  gardener.  This  trouble,  however,  can  be 
easily  overcome  by  subjecting  the  soil  to  freezing. 

Seedling  Plants. — Two  types  of  plants  are  used  for  forcing  pur- 
poses— seedling  plants  and  cutting  plants.  The  former  are,  of 
course,  seedlings  grown  from  seed  especially  sown  for  the  purpose 
of  raising  plants  to  be  grown  in  a  greenhouse.  It  is  customary  in  the 
latitude  of  New  York  and  northward  to  sow  the  seed  for  a  forcing 
crop  of  tomatoes  in  the  month  of  August.  The  young  seedling 
plants,  as  soon  as  they  develop  the  first  true  leaves,  are  then  trans- 
planted from  the  seed  bed  to  small  pots,  preferably  3-inch  pots.  They 
are  planted  deeply  at  this  time  and  are  kept  growing  rapidly  but  not 
sufficiently  to  produce  a  soft,  succulent  growth.  As  soon  as  the  3-inch 
pots  are  filled  with  roots  the  plants  are  shifted  to  4-inch  pots,  and 
when  the  plants  have  attained  a  height  of  12  or  15  inches,  and  have 
developed  their  first  blossoms,  they  are  usually  placed  on  the  benches 
of  the  greenhouse,  where  they  are  to  produce  their  crop.  The  plants 
axe  then  set  15  or  18  inches  apart  each  way  in  a  soil  prepared  as 
previously  described. 

Cutting  Plants. — Cuttings  should  be  taken  from  strong,  healthy, 
vigorous-growing  plants  in  the  field,  and  placed  in  the  cutting  bed1 
about  the  last  of  August,  where  they  will  quickly  take  root.  As  soon 
as  the  roots  have  developed  to  a  length  of  from  one-half  to  1  inch  the 
young  plants  are  shifted  to  3  or  4  inch  pots,  where  they  are  allowed 
to  develop  until  the  blossom  buds  are  well  formed  or  the  blossoms 
have  expanded,  when  they  should  be  planted  on  the  bench  where 
they  are  to  mature  their  crop,  in  like  manner  as  noted  for  seedling 
plants. 

Pollination. — In  the  field,  where  the  tomato  plants  are  exposed! 
to  the  action  of  wind  and  to  the  visits  of  insects,  no  special  attention 
is  necessary  in  order  to  secure  the  pollination  of  the  flowers  and  the 
setting  of  the  fruits.  Under  the  conditions  existing  in  a  greenhouse, 
however,  it  is  necessary  to  artificially  pollinate  the  flowers  of  the 
tomato ;  otherwise  only  a  very  small  percentage  of  fruits  will  set  and 
the  object  of  the  work  will  be  defeated.  It  is  therefore  necessary  to 
allow  the  temperature  of  the  house  to  become  quite  high  in  the  middle 
of  the  day  on  bright  sunshiny  days  while  the  plants  are  in  bloom, 
and  to  pass  through  the  house  at  this  time  with  a  little  stick,  18  inches 
or  2  feet  in  length,  with  which  to  strike  the  supporting  strings  or 
wires  and  thus  to  set  the  plants  in  motion  and  liberate  the  pollen  and 
cause  it  to  fertilize  the  flowers.  A  more  satisfactory  way,  however, 


FIELD  AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  135 

Is  to  use  a  watch  glass,  l1^  or  l1/^  inches  in  diameter,  embedded  in 
putty,  at  the  end  of  a  handle  composed  of  a  light  material,  preferably 
white  pine,  which  shall  be  12  or  18  inches  long.  Grasp  this  spatula 
in  the  left  hand  and,  with  a  light  pine  stick  of  equal  length  in  the 
right  hand,  pass  through  the  house,  tapping  each  open  flower  lightly 
with  the  wand,  at  the  same  time  holding  the  watch  glass  under  the 
flowers  to  catch  the  pollen.  Before  removing  the  watch  glass  from 
this  position  lift  it  sufficiently  to  cause  the  stigma  of  the  flower  to  dip 
into  the  pollen  contained  in  the  glass.  By  carefully  going  through 
the  house  from  day  to  day  during  the  blooming  period  nearly  90 
per  cent  of  the  blossoms  which  develop  can  be  caused  to  set.  Durinf 
dark,  cloudy,  stormy  weather,  however,  a  smaller  percentage  of  plant* 
will  be  fertilized  than  during  bright,  comparatively  dry  weather. 
The  conditions  in  the  greenhouse  can  not  be  modified  so  as  to  entirely 
overcome  the  adverse  conditions  existing  on  the  outside,  although 
with  care  much  can  be  done  in  this  direction. 

Manuring. — It  is  desirable  to  keep  plants  of  the  tomato  which 
are  designed  for  forcing  growing  at  a  moderately  rapid  rate  through- 
out the  whole  forcing  period.  Growth  should  be  strong  and  robust 
at  all  times,  yet  slow  enough  to  produce  close-jointed  plants  which! 
bear  their  fruit  clusters  at  near  intervals.  There  is  considerable  dif- 
ference in  varieties  of  tomatoes  in  this  respect,  and  those  which 
naturally  bear  their  fruit  clusters  close  together  should  be  selected 
for  forcing  purposes.  The  manuring  of  the  plants  should,  therefore, 
take  a  form  which  will  be  conducive  to  this  strong,  vigorous  growth, 
yet  not  sufficiently  heavy  to  produce  plants  which  run  to  wood  at 
the  expense  of  fruit  bearing. 

Ventilating  and  Watering. — If  careful  attention  is  given  to 
keeping  the  plants  in  a  healthy  condition  by  never  allowing  them  to 
suffer  from  overwatering  or  from  becoming  too  dry,  and  if  sufficient 
ventilation  is  given  without  allowing  draughts  of  cold  air  upon  the 
plants,  much  can  be  done  to  prevent  the  development  of  mildew. 
If  the  plants  are  to  be  sprayed  it  should  be  done  once  a  week  or  once 
in  ten  days,  and  then  only  in  the  mornings  of  bright  days.  Ordi- 
narily, however,  the  atmosphere  of  the  house  should  be  kept  dry 
rather  than  moist,  as  a  very  moist  atmosphere  is  liable  to  produce  a 
soft,  succulent  growth,  which  brings  on  a  disease  known  to  gardeners 
as  oedema.  This,  however,  can  be  prevented  by  care  in  keeping  the 
house  rather  dry.  The  temperature  of  the  house,  too,  should  not  be 
allowed  to  fluctuate  through  too  wide  a  range.  The  night  tempera- 
ture for  tomatoes  should  range  between  65°  and  68°  F.,  while  the 
day  temperature  should  run  from  70°  to  80°  F. 

Varieties  for  Forcing. — The  comparatively  limited  use  of  toma- 
toes for  forcing  purposes  in  this  country  has  not  resulted  in  the  devel- 
opment of  many  sorts  especially  suited  for  this  purpose.  The  Loril- 
lard  is  the  one  American  sort  which  is  now  almost  exclusively  con- 
fined to  this  use,  and  it  is  perhaps  more  generally  cultivated  in  forc- 
ing houses  than  any  other  single  variety. 

The  Tomato  as  a  Field  Crop  for  Canneries. — Owing  to  the  fact 
that  in  canned  tomatoes  it  is  difficult  for  the  average  consumer  to 


136  THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 

note  any  deficiencies  in  the  appearance  of  the  original  fruit,  many 
labor  under  the  delusion  that  any  variety  will  answer  for  this  pur- 
pose. This  is  a  mistaken  idea,  as  quality  in  canned  goods  is  now  an 
important  factor,  and  it  is  quite  as  necessary  that  a  good  quality  of 
product  should  be  used  for  canning  as  for  growing  for  the  early  or 
general  market,  although  from  the  field  side  it  is  natural  that  ton- 
nage should  be  a  primary  consideration. 

In  the  matter  of  varieties,  as  in  the  case  of  early  tomatoes,  too 
much  dependence  should  not  be  placed  upon  the  name  or  upon  the 
fact  that  a  neighboring  farmer  secures  good  results  from  a  given 
variety.  There  are  so  many  variations  in  the  character  of  soils,  even 
in  the  same  locality,  which  exert  an  influence  upon  the  size  and 
quality  of  crop  that  the  best  variety  is  usually  one  that  is,  in  part  at 
least,  developed  by  the  individual  grower.  The  main  point  is  to 
select  varieties  that  produce  large,  smooth,  solid  fruits,  which  do  not 
remain  green  or  crack  on  the  shaded  side  near  the  stem.  Those 
which  possess  size  as  their  chief  characteristic  are  frequently  of  poor 
quality,  as  they  are  likely  to  possess  large  seed  cavities  and  to  ripen 
unevenly. 

The  conditions  in  some  sections  are  such  as  to  prevent  the  can- 
ners  from  making  as  much  distinction  between  good  and  poor  varie- 
ties as  they  would  like.  Canneries  are  in  a  measure  obliged  to  receive 
all  that  come,  unless  they  can  control  absolutely  the  land  upon  which 
the  crop  is  grown.  The  variation  in  the  quality  of  the  crops  of  dif- 
ferent farmers  will  make  a  difference  of  from  25  to  40  cans  on  a  ton 
of  fruit,  or  from  6  to  10  per  cent — a  very  considerable  item.  In  good 
seasons  and  with  good  fruit  400  cans  may  be  regarded  as  the  maxi- 
mum number  to  be  derived  from  a  ton,  though  late  in  the  season, 
and  with  poor  varieties,  as  already  stated,  the  pack  from  a  ton  is  very 
much  less.  The  interests  of  the  grower  and  the  canner  are  really 
identical  in  this  regard.  An  improvement  in  the  quality  of  the  fruit 
will  result  in  an  improvement  of  the  canned  product  and  a  consequent 
increase  in  the  price  of  both  the  raw  and  manufactured  products. 
Less  expense  is  involved  in  growing  suitable  plants  for  cannery  pur- 
poses than  for  other  crops.  This  is  due  to  the  fact  that  earliness  is  not 
so  important  a  factor  as  it  is  in  the  market  garden  crop. 

Fertilizing  and  Cultivating  the  Soil. — In  manuring  and  fertiliz- 
ing, the  character  of  the  crop  and  the  season  of  its  growth  should  be 
remembered.  Hence,  recommendations  that  were  made  for  an  early 
crop  do  not  apply  in  all  cases  except  perhaps  on  the  poorer  classes 
of  soils.  In  the  first  place,  the  plants  are  not  put  in  the  soil  until 
summer,  when  the  conditions  are  most  favorable  for  the  rapid  change 
of  organic  forms  of  nitrogen  into  nitrates,  and  thus,  if  the  soil  has 
been  manured  or  is  naturally  rich  in  vegetable  matter,  the  additional 
application  of  nitrogen  in  immediately  available  forms  is  not  so 
important.  In  the  second  place,  the  object  of  the  growth  is  not  early 
maturity,  but  the  largest  yield  of  mature  fruit. 

Setting  and  Cultivating  the  Plants. — The  plants  should  be  set 
from  4  to  4%  feet  apart  each  way  and  cultivation  should  begin 
immediately.  The  first  cultivation  should  be  deep,  in  order  to  con* 


FIELD  "AND  GARDEN  PRODUCTS  137 

serve  the  moisture,  and  each  subsequent  cultivation  shallower,  in 
order  not  to  destroy  the  roots,  which  will  fill  the  soil  as  soon  as  the 
plants  reach  maturity.  The  crop  in  good  seasons  should  begin  to 
ripen  in  August,  and  picking  will  continue  from  that  time  until  the 
last  of  September. 

Cost,  Yield,  and  Value  of  Crop. — The  cost  of  production  per  acre 
is  much  less  for  fruit  for  canning  than  in  the  case  of  early  tomatoes, 
the  chief  difference  being  in  the  production  of  the  plants.  The  sev 
eral  items  may  be  classified  as  follows : 

Cost  of  growing  an  acre  of  tomatoes  for  canning: 

Plants $  2.00 

Manures  and  fertilizers 8.00 

Preparation  of  land,  setting  plants  and  cultivation. .     8.00 
Picking  and  carting 10.00 

Total    $28.00 

The  yield,  as  in  the  case  of  the  early  tomatoes,  varies  widely, 
ranging  from  5  to  as  high  as  20  tons  per  acre,  even  30  tons  per  acre 
having  been  reported  in  exceptional  cases,  although  the  average  for 
a  series  of  years  on  average  land  will  probably  be  under  8  tons. 
Where  all  conditions  are  carefully  observed,  20-ton  yields  are  fre- 
quently obtained,  and  at  the  prices  received  at  the  cannery,  ranging 
from  $5  to  $7.50  per  ton,  according  to  the  locality,  the  crop  is  a 
fairly  good  one  and  the  net  profits  are  quite  as  large  as  for  other  field 
crops. 

TURNIPS. 

A  great  variety  of  turnips  is  grown  throughout  temperate  cli- 
mates, some  of  which  being  coarse  in  texture  are  used  as  food  for 
farm  animals  while  other  varieties  are  raised  as  table  vegetables. 
There  is  considerable  variation  in  the  color,  flavor,  and  composition 
of  the  turnip,  the  yellow-fleshed  sorts  as  a  group  being  commonly  dis- 
tinguished from  the  white  by  the  name  "Swedes"  or  "ruta-bagas." 
In  the  summer  the  early  white  varieties  are  usually  preferred  in  spite 
of  the  fact  that  they  are  more  watery,  while  in  winter  the  yellow  tur- 
nips are  more  commonly  used. 

The  turnip  requires  a  rich  soil,  and  may  be  grown  either  as  an 
early  or  a  late  crop.  For  an  early  crop,  sow  the  seeds  in  drills  12  to 
18  inches  apart  as  early  in  the  spring  as  the  condition  of  the  soil  will 
permit.  Two  pounds  of  seed  are  required  to  plant  an  acre.  After 
the  plants  appear,  thin  to  about  3  inches.  The  roots  will  be  ready 
for  use  before  hot  weather.  For  late  turnips  the  seeds  are  usually 
sown  broadcast  on  land  from  which  some  early  crop  has  been 
removed,  generally  during  July  or  August,  but  later  in  the  South. 
Turnips  are  quite  hardy,  and  the  roots  need  not  be  gathered  until 
after  several  frosts.  Turnips  may  be  stored  in  a  cellar  or  buried  in  a 
pit  outside.  Before  storing,  the  tops  should  be  removed. — (F.  B.  255, 
295;  U.  Id.  E.  S.  10;  Mich.  E.  S.  20.) 

VEGETABLE  MARROW. 

The  so-called  vegetable  marrows  are  a  valuable  product  and 
closely  allied  to  the  pumpkin,  both  as  to  species  and  habit  of  growth, 


o  2 


s^.t 


"4 

ll 


•I1* 

!js{ 


II 


33     33     3 


S3     S' 


=>oo  w  oo  M  ooooooo 

mro  ^<0°"a — i: ± — 2 ^m,-^ — £-£ — £L2 — £JS 


itii  i1  tiS$ 


MMM 

«Mii! 

ASiii 


's'SS'S 


Pali 

SfKh 


I&sl&l  lllg&l&l5|&&i   la 

•§gs   s$   <^     s   a      <ssj   ss 


:1 


I  li 


II  I 

22     S 


if 


^^§§P  r*         **^ 

II|l|3||si|  §' 

£x«f*<    Sfc     *5    Si 


!i 


iiS;|*«k     :-!, 

^5i!;U*Jf 


SSSSS     S3    55     535 


55353     33       3 


3S2SS 

CTrtMIOlO 


63    55    55° 

„„       S«       *«,, 

3g     33     33S 


S 


S        S8SSS    S 


i^     55     5  i 

«o««ss      *«      go      w    | 

3SSS3     S3     33     3^ 


^5655  53 
SSS^S  S3 
33333  S3 


tid^jj^  d5  55  5:5  5 

""S^S  *S  ««  5  :S  JS 

S32S3  S3  33  3iJ3  3 

MCCOCOO  »«  eo  g^g  ^ 


e    3 

•   a 
s   s 


S     3 

*    S 


5SdS       5  •       d     : 
S3335     35    |S    3 

M  M  °°  S  M          MM          CQ  ^**          « 


: E  :|  ;  :  :  •  ]  j  •  •  ;  :  ; 

H         ySl"  ***  SS  £00  S  £  S 

tits'!  *!  II  Hi  1  i  I 

ffM^,g_i  ^^  a*a<  a*^^  s<  a«  a< 


9%;1  ti  II  li 

li  I  li  Sli 

^•3-5^fl     ««     «5    oo« 


i§§ 


*a   O         DO         O 

lll§    ^|     II     1 

^,3«^S<e'      S<^!      ^^     a< 


III! 


Ills 

i!  II 


138 


oo 

SS    S 


So61  50*3   2S33S2  335S   52  3    5S  SeoS2  22  2    S3' 
Slf  ggis   §Ig§g§  gg§S   IS  §    If  S«^i§  gg  §    l§: 


i«j     !  il 


8  :  : 


tin  ii 

lii  11^ 


s 


ill 


r?  :  : 
g  :  : 


g^a  181||1 


May 
April 


Hi]     I 
afas    -; 

^i^  i;^ai  ^^  i " 

1:1;  2:i&;i  j;^  2  * 

"1!  I 

•<  W  fe  O  W       03    •  SJW  g 


May 
Sept 
Feb 


. 

1  1 


I! 


5  :5555      :55  :        I      :      :       5    555555 


5553   352222  5225   555   3  333322 


a  a  a 

333 


a  aaa   s. 


3:3:: 


SS5 
233 


3    533 


gg     Sg33        335 


55sd      ds^ds^    5555      A    a    d      d    5"5d5j 

3322   222222  2222   332   3  222222 


333 


5d 
S3 
S3 


5  5  d   d 


533 


2253   225222  2222   222 


2    2532 
00          w 


e    e    e 

323 


S3 
33 


JSSSS"     8g 

IHII^    |E 


iiii 

§§*§ 


ii 


ill 


m 


ffinii 

I  lit!  I  1 


139 


140 


THE  VEGETABLE  GARDEN 


the  principal  difference  being  that  the  vegetable  marrows  are  used 
while  quite  young  and  tender,  and  may  be  baked  and  served  very 
much  the  same  as  sweet  potatoes.  The  vegetable  marrows  should 
receive  thorough  cultivation  in  order  that  a  tender  product  may  be 
secured,  and  should  be  gathered  while  the  outside  skin  is  still  so 
tender  that  it  may  easily  be  broken  by  the  finger  nail.  The  flesh  is 
either  boiled  and  mashed  or  baked  in  the  oven  and  served  with  butter 
while  hot.— (F.  B.  255;  Oreg.  E.  S.  B.  74.) 

Average  Composition  of  Succulent  Roots. 


Kind  of  Vegetable 

Refuse 

Edible  portion 

Water 

S£ 

Fat 

Carbohydrates 

Ash 

Fuel 
yalue 
per 
pound 

Sugar, 
starch, 
etc. 

Crude 
fiber 

Perct. 
7.0 

Perct. 
87.5 
88.6 
84.1 
88.2 
3.5 
83.0 
85.4 
80.4 
91.8 
89.6 
88.9 
91.1 
87.6 
64.7 
78.3 

Perct. 
1.6 
2.3 
1.5 
1.1 
7.7 
1.6 

". 
1.3 

i':i 

2.0 

H 

2.2 

Perct. 
0.1 

'A 

A 
.6 
.5 
.3 
.5 
.1 
.2 
.2 
.1 
.3 
.1 
.1 

Perct. 
8.8 
7.4 
11.8 
8.2 
80.3 
11.0 
G.8 
17.1 
5.1 
6.8 
7.3 
4.2 
9.1 
27.9 
18.0 

Perct. 
0.9 

'  i'.4 
1.1 

'  i'.  5 
2.0 
2.3 
.7 
1.3 
1.2 
1.3 

'A 

Perct. 
1.1 

1.6 
.8 
1.0 
4.9 

1:1 

1.0 

.1 

.8 
1.1 
1.3 
.6 
1.5 
1.0 

Calories 
215 
185 
285 
210 
1,790 
300 
250 
390 

S 

185 

III 
650 
375 

Celerlac      

20.0 
20.0 

20.0 
25.0 
20.0 

'To'.  6' 

10.0 
20.0 
30.0 

Salsify   "Oyster   plant" 

Radishes    

Kohl-rabi    .  . 

Onions    

Garlic 

Potatoes  

20.0 

(Authorities  consulted  in  the  Chapter  on  Vegetable  Garden. — • 
Colo.  Ag.  Col.  E.  S. ;  U.  111.  A.  E.  S. ;  U.  Idaho  A.  E. ;  Purdue  U.  A. 
E.  S.;  N.  H.  Col.  A.  E.  S.;  Mich.  St.  A.  E.  S.;  Mass.  Ag.  Col.  E.  S.; 
Ohio  Ag.  E.  S. ;  S.  C.  A.  E.  S. :  Okla.  A.  E.  S. ;  Texas  A.  E.  S. ;  Va.  A. 
E.  S. ;  W.  Va.  U.  A.  E.  S. ;  Cornell  U.  A.  E.  S. ;  R.  I.  Col.  of  Ag.  and 
Mech.  Arts  E.  S. ;  N.  C.  Col.  of  Ag.  and  Mech.  Arts ;  N.  Y.  A.  E.  S. ; 
U.  Tenn.  A.  E.  S. ;  Pa.  St.  Col.  A.  E.  S. ;  Mich.  St.  Ag.  Col.  A.  E.  S. ; 
S.  Dak.  A.  E.  S. ;  U.  Wyo.  E.  S. ;  B.  P.  I. ;  Kans.  St.  Ag.  Col.  E.  S. ; 
N.  J.  A.  E.  S. ;  Tuskegee  Normal  &  Industrial  Inst.  E.  S. ;  S.  S.  E.  S. 
Clemson  Ag.  Col. ;  N.  Mex.  Col.  of  Ag.  and  Mech.  Arts  E.  S. ;  Fla. 
A.  E.  S. ;  Iowa  Ag.  Col.  E.  S. ;  U.  Minn.  A.  E.  S. ;  U.  Nevada  A.  E.  S. ; 
N.  Dak.  E.  S. ;  Oreg.  A.  E.  S. ;  Del.  Col.  A.  E.  S. ;  Ark.  Ag.  Col.  E.  S. ; 
U.  Nebr.  A.  E.  S.;  Ga.  E.  S.;  Md.  A.  E  .S.;  Miss.  Ag.  E.  S.  The 
entire  article  on  Vegetable  Garden  was  taken  bodily  from  the  best 
portions  of  the  above  bulletins,  etc.) 


THE  COTJNTRY  LITE 

GARDEN  CITY,  N.  Y. 


University  of  California 

SOUTHERN  REGIONAL  LIBRARY  FACILITY 

405  Hilgard  Avenue,  Los  Angeles,  CA  90024-1388 

Return  this  material  to  the  library 

from  which  n  was  borrowed. 


A    000037708     5 


